Irrigation watercourse, "Area Four", Taiwan

RESOURCE:

The resource appropriated from A Watercourse in Area Four is water for irrigation. The resource discussed in this study consists of a network of canals that deliver water to farmlands.

SCREENER:

Case: A Watercourse in Area Four, Taiwan

The information regarding the following common-pool resource system was taken from empirical evidence from a field setting. Data on the system was extracted from a paper issued by a scholar or research institution. Currently, there are no additional documents to cite which may provide further information about this common-pool resource.

These documents describe four resources in detail. The primary resource is the A Watercourse in Area Four, situated in A Watercourse in Area Four of Taiwan. More generally, it is located in Orient. The system's sector is that of water. Relatively good information has been collected about the stakes of participants who appropriate from A Watercourse in Area Four. The condition of this resource is well understood. Complete information is not available regarding the strategies used by key groups interacting with the system. There is thorough documentation of the operational rules for this resource. This is the result of a high level of confidence that the authors who recorded the features of A Watercourse in Area Four have a complete knowledge of its particulars. Furthermore, the authors have provided sufficient data to formulate a structured coding process.

There are 201-500 total appropriator teams appropriating from the resource . At the beginning of the period discussed by the authors, there was a moderate shortage of biological and physical resources withdrawn compared to the number of units available. Appropriator teams for the resource are always formally organized.

Bottrall develops an analytical framework to evaluate irrigation project management in developing countries, based on a literature review and 4 field studies in South and East Asia (bureaucratic system vs. irrigation association with full-time officials, system with vs. without formal watercourse organizations and rules). A principal focus is the performance of the activity of water distribution, since it is peculiar to irrigated agriculture. He identifies and recommends organizational structures and management procedures most likely to serve the interests of the rural poor, especially small farmers and those at the tail-end of a system, and concludes that there are great opportunities to improve performance of irrigation projects via management reform and better water distribution. Appendix A is a checklist, Guidelines for Analysis. Area Four has irrigation associations run by full-time officials. There used to be farmers' representative committees, but they are now temporarily suspended. There are numerous local farmers' groups which consult and coordinate with the irrigation associations in regard to water rotation. The system as a whole is managed effectively. (Bottrall provided Country)

CITATION(S):

Bottrall, A. F. (1981) "Comparative Study of the Management and Organization of Irrigation Projects." World Bank Working Paper No. 458. Washington, DC: World Bank.*

RESOURCE INFO:

The resource appropriated from A Watercourse in Area Four is water for irrigation. It is produced physically and is a renewable moving (fugitive) unit. The resource discussed in this study consists of a network of canals that deliver water to farmlands.

The boundary of this resource has natural/constructed and institutional arrangements which limit entry. The boundaries of this resource are the same as the location, and exist in one country, and are not divided among multiple general purpose local jurisdictions at a single level. The boundaries of this resource are independent of a development project designed by non-residents.

There are not distinct and stable micro-environmental or ecological zones within this resource (educated guess).

There are strategic points within the resource where the main flow of the water for irrigation can be controlled (inferred). There is not considerable variation over space in the availability of water for irrigation within the resource (educated guess). There is considerable, and mildly predictable variation in the flow of water for irrigation within a single year (inferred). The case study did not include information regarding whether or not there is considerable variation in the flow of water for irrigation from year to year.

The topography of the resource or the land immediately around the resource is steeply sloping (confident).

The boundaries of the production resource are totally seperated from the boundaries of the appropriation resource (confident). The boundaries of the production resource are totally seperated from the boundaries of the location (confident). The boundaries of the distribution resource are not identical to the boundaries of the appropriation resource. The distribution resource is a facility connected to the appropriation resource (confident). The boundaries of the production resource are not equivalent to the boundaries of the distribution resource. The production resource is a facility connected to the distribution resource (confident).

The headworks (production resource) are operated by the same agency(s) (or the same group(s) of people) as the appropriation resource, but the agency(s) or the group(s) of people are not the sole operator(s) of the headworks (inferred). A specially designated national enterprise(s) or officials operates the headworks for this system (confident). The irrigators being served by this production organization do not participate in the selection of the officials of the production agency except as citizens in a general election (inferred). The distribution system is operated by the same agency(s) or the groups(s) of people as the appropriation system, but the distribution system is not solely operated by the same agency(s) (or the same group(s) of people) as the appropriation resource (inferred). A specially designated national enterprise(s) or officials operate(s) the distribution system (confident). The irrigators being served by this production organization do not participate in the selection of the officials of the distribution agency, except as citizens in a general election (inferred). The distribution system is solely operated by the same agency(s) (or the same group(s) of people) as the headworks of the system (inferred).

LOCATION:

The appropriation resources are situated in the area covered by a small group in Area A. The boundaries of the location are boundaries of an administrative unit. The appropriation resource present in this location consists of networks of canals that deliver water to farmlands (coding), and tubewells. Regarding the use of the irrigation system, there were few adverse affects throughout the entire period in the relationships among appropriation processes.

The system is located within one country. Within this country, the system's location is not divided among several general purpose local jurisdictions at the same level. A permanent population lives year round in this location (inferred). There is frequent contact and communication between people in this location and officials in a nearby administrative center (inferred). Additionally, the most common mode of transportation in this region is -1. This location is also characterized by an economy that is stable and tied to other economic networks during the entire time period (educated guess).

The latitude of this location is -1, and its longitude is -1. The elevation of this location is -1 meters. The highest elevation is -1. The lowest elevation of this location is -1. The region's average annual rainfall is 1550 milimeters (highly confident). The region's average annual evapotranspiration is unknown. The distribution of rainfall and evapotranspiration per month is as follows:

January precipitation: unknown, evapotraspiration: unknown

February precipitation: unknown, evapotraspiration: unknown

March precipitation: unknown, evapotraspiration: unknown

April precipitation: unknown, evapotraspiration: unknown

May precipitation: unknown, evapotraspiration: unknown

June precipitation: unknown, evapotraspiration: unknown

July precipitation: unknown, evapotraspiration: unknown

August precipitation: unknown, evapotraspiration: unknown

September precipitation: unknown, evapotraspiration: unknown

October precipitation: unknown, evapotraspiration: unknown

November precipitation: unknown, evapotraspiration: unknown

December precipitation: unknown, evapotraspiration: unknown

RESOURCE:

The resource appropriated from A Watercourse in Area Four is water for irrigation. The resource discussed in this study consists of a network of canals that deliver water to farmlands.

OPERATIONAL LEVEL:

TYPE OF SITUATION

The processes described in the related documents are primarily related to appropriation, production, distribution and use. The formal owner(s) of the resource discussed in this study is a central government. The set of individuals who have rights to withdraw from this resource is well-defined. As of the beginning of this period, the owners are exercising (or attempting to exercise de jure) and effective in gaining closed access to this resource. Since the beginning of this period, the appropriators are exercising (or attempting to exercise de jure) effective closed access to this resource.

EVENTS MARKING THE BEGINNING ACTION SITUATION

It is estimated that the operational level coded on this form ended in 1979. The estimated duration of the patterns that are described in this form is 1 to 10 years. Throughout the duration there was change made primarily by an external authority in operational, collective, or consititutional rules. There was no change in resource size or structure. There was no new technology introduced to the system over the duration of the patterns coded on this form. There was no substantial external change in the value of the units appropriated. The quantity of units available did not change due to a change in appropriation patterns of other appropriators' withdrawals from the same production or distribution resource. There were no new groups starting to withdraw units from the appropriation resource. There was no recorded change to one or more variables internal to the operational level. The variables that changed were -2. The author begins the description of this case at this point in history. The author begins at this point in history because B4 (p.136).

CONDITIONS AT THE BEGINNING AND END OF PERIOD COVERED BY THIS FORM*

For biological resources at the beginning of this period, the balance between the quantity of units withdrawn and the number of units available was a moderate shortage (inferred). For biological resources at the end of this period, the balance between the quantity of units withdrawn and the number of units available was a moderate shortage (inferred). For physical resources at the beginning of this period, the balance between the quantity of units withdrawn and the quantity of units needed, given the usual patterns of use for these units was a moderate shortage (inferred). For physical resources at the end of the period the balance between the quantity of units withdrawn and the quantity of units needed, given the usual patterns of use for these units, was a moderate shortage (inferred).

The following includes the available statistics on the use of this resource at the beginning of the time period, followed by the end of the time period:

Square meters of fields irrigated at the beginning of the period: 1500000

Square meters of fields irrigated at the end of the period: 1500000

*In fisheries and other biological systems, this is the maximum sustainable number of units. In irrigation, this refers to the optimal water requirements of the crops in the established fields served by this system.

At the beginning of the period, the units were predominantly used to produce other units.

At the end of the period, the units were predominantly used to produce other units.

As of the beginning of the period, the quality of the units being withdrawn from the resource was passable (educated guess). As of the end of the period, the quality of the units being withdrawn from the resource was passable (educated guess). At the beginning of the period of the study, there were no problems of pollution in this or other resources, due to the way units are being appropriated (inferred). At the end of the period of the study, there were no problems of pollution in this or other resources due to the way units are being appropriated (inferred). As of the beginning of the period, the extent of technical externalities resulting from the appropriation activities of participants from this resource was relatively low (educated guess). As of the end of the period, the extent of technical externalities resulting from the appropriation activities of participants from this resource was relatively low (educated guess). At the beginning of this study, the interference between the appropriation technology for this resource and the appropriation processes for other resources in this location had no effect on the appropriation resources (educated guess). At the end of this study, the interference between the appropriation technology for this resource and the appropriation processes for other resources in this location had no effect on the appropriation resources (educated guess). At the beginning of this study the appropriation resource was well maintained, and in excellent working order (inferred). At the end of this study the appropriation resource was well maintained, and in excellent working order (inferred). At the beginning of this period the appropriators shared moderate to high levels of mutual trust (e.g. oral promises given high credence) (inferred). At the end of the period the appropriators shared moderate to high levels of mutual trust (e.g. oral promises given high credence) (inferred). ## Unknown markup: Start ##By the end of this period no change had occurred in the property rights regime related to the appropriation resource (inferred).

INFORMATION LEVELS

There are readily available maps or charts of the appropriation resource for use by the appropriators (inferred). Maps and/or charts of the production and distribution resources are available to appropriators (educated guess). The appropriators of this resource can be seen by each other while withdrawing units from the resource (educated guess). No documentation was included in the study regarding whether or not the appropriators of this resource are in radio communication with each other while appropriating from the resource. There are actions being taken, by appropriators or officials, to generate information about the condition of the resource (inferred). There are always records of the withdrawals from this resource kept in a systematic way (educated guess). There are always records of the physical factors which directly affected the resource kept in a systematic way (educated guess). There was no information in the study about whether or not there are records of the appropriators' contributions to monitoring of the resource kept in a systematic way. There was no information in the study about whether or not there are records of the appropriators' contribution to the maintenance of the resource kept in a systematic way. Records are kept in a language accessible to most of the appropriators (inferred). The keepers of these records are officials at some level (inferred). These records are available for inspection by appropriators (inferred). There are arenas being used for the exchange of information about conditions of the resource (inferred). Appropriators get together to discuss mutual problems of the resource at a frequency which was not included in the case study. The appropriators have an intimate knowledge of the characteristics of this resource (inferred).

POTENTIAL ACTIONS AND LEVELS OF CONTROL

There are non-appropriators that made up a specialized staff or workers to undertake maintenance (inferred). The quality or quantity of the units available to the appropriators are not documented as having experienced any effect of past appropriators. There are not problems of pollution resulting from activities of others who are not appropriators of this resource or inhabitants of this location (e.g. acid rain, sewage disposal) (educated guess). The study does not indicate whether or not there was an insurance mechanism available to the appropriators related to variability of income from the resource.

PATTERNS OF INTERACTION

Differences between subgroups relating to gender identification does not affect communication (educated guess). Differences between subgroups relating to ethnic identification does not exist (inferred). Differences between subgroups relating to clan identification does not affect communication (educated guess). Differences between subgroups relating to racial identification does not exist (inferred). Differences between subgroups relating to caste identification does not exist (inferred). Differences between subgroups relating to religious identification does not affect communication (educated guess). Differences between subgroups relating to languages spoken does not exist (inferred). Differences between subgroups relating to general cultural views of the resource system and its use does not exist (inferred). Differences between subgroups relating to any problems that affect communication does not exist (inferred).

The general manner in which appropriators related to one another during this study is a relatively positive, reciprocal manner -- the presumption was made that long-term relationships are involved and positive actions are undertaken without a specific expectation of return (inferred). The documents present evidence that the appropriators have a general cultural pattern that stressed various types of cooperative activities besides the management of this resource (educated guess). If someone violated the rules-in-use related to the appropriation process from this resource, it is likely that he/she would encounter social sanctions imposed by other appropriators (who are not filling posititions as official monitors) (educated guess). If someone violates the rules-in-use related to the appropriation process from this resource, it is likely that an official monitor or guard would move to impose sanctions (educated guess). It is unlikely that local appropriators would attempt to bribe an official if an official monitor or guard moved to impose sanctions (educated guess).

POSITIONS AND PARTICIPANTS

At the end of the period studied there was no information coded to indicate whether or not the position of non-appropriator (individuals prevented from using the resource) existed. At the beginning of the period there was a general estimate of 201-500 appropriators (educated guess). There was a general estimate of 201-500 appropriators at the end of the period (educated guess). The "official" position of monitor (apart from the willingness of all appropriators to monitor) does exist, some are selected by appropriators and some are employees of an external government authority (confident). This position monitors rules devised by national collective choice processes (column 1 of the rules form), rules devised by local collective choice processes (column 3 of the rules form), and rules-in-use.

The appropriators monitor the appropriation activities of each other apart from the monitoring of any "official" guards (inferred). The general estimate for the number of official monitors on duty at one time during peak hours was not included in this case study. Official monitors are paid in money. The study did not indicate how many of the monitors were full-time.

NUMBER AND RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SUBGROUPS

There will be 1 subgroup form(s) completed in relation to this operational level form. The ID number(s) of the subgroup(s) coded are as follows: 74.1 - 0 - 0 - 0

EVALUATION OF RESULTS

There are no appropriators who were consistently disadvantaged in this period (inferred). The relatively worst off appropriators have not been cut out of their benefits from this resource or substantially harmed (inferred). By the end of the period studied the distance between those who were the least advantaged and those who were the most advantaged could be characterized as remaining relatively constant over time (educated guess).

AUTHOR'S EVALUATION AND CAUSAL ASSUMPTIONS

In this coding form the author focuses on the readers' concept of results and the evaluation of results (inferred).

The author's results indicate generally satisfactory levels of productivity, equity, environmental stabilty, cost, and cost recovery. This is a result of physical factors, as well as organization and management. Not all of the concepts are captured in the results. The author evaluates this system to be of high efficiency.. The author discusses withdrawals per unit of effort based on -1

SUBGROUP:

Participants:

The criteria for who is a member is well defined (inferred). Membership at the start of this group numbered 300 (inferred). This group ended with a membership of 300 (inferred). An estimated 76%-90% of this group is literate in a language that records or publications about this resource and/or location (or other similar resources) is kept (highly confident).

The following statements characterize the composition of this subgroup's population with respect to variables that may affect the capacity to communicate effectively:

The difference in composition with regard to gender identification does not affect communication (educated guess). Ethnic or cultural identification causes no difference in composition (inferred). The difference in composition with regard to clan identification does not affect communication (educated guess). Racial identification causes no difference in composition (inferred). Caste identification causes no difference in composition (inferred). The difference in composition with regard to religious identification does not affect communication (educated guess). There is no difference in composition with regard to languages spoken (inferred).

.

Legal Rights:

Members of this subgroup have de jure rights of access (inferred). The right to withdraw is held by this subgroup de jure (inferred). Rights to participate in management of this resource is held de jure (inferred). Exlusion from use of the entire resource is not exercised either de facto nor de jure (educated guess). Members of this subgroup cannot exercise the right to decide who can be excluded from particular zones within the resource either de facto nor de jure. (educated guess). The separable right of transfer to the flow of units from this resource is not held either by de jure nor de facto (educated guess). The separable rights to exercise transfer to shares of this appropriation resource, or closely related production and/or distribution resources are neither held de jure nor de facto (educated guess). Transferring shares of major appropriation equipment which are necessary to engage in appropriation is not exercised either je jure nor de facto## Unknown column: EQUIPSHAR ##.

Stakes and Resources:

The length of time this subgroup has regularly appropriated from this resource is 51 through 75 years (educated guess). Around 91%-100% of members reside in or adjacent to this resource (educated guess). Most people in this subgroup are moderately dependent (i.e. about half of the family income) on this resource (inferred). The proportion of this subgroup that currently appropriates similar units from other resources is 51%-75% (educated guess). Given the economy of the location, the average annual family income (including all non-monetary forms of income) is considered average (educated guess). The variance of the average annual family income across families is low (inferred). Over time the variance in average annual family income is low (inferred). Capital is owned by 91%-100% of this subgroup (confident). Alternatives for the supply unit are available at a moderate cost (educated guess).

Potential Actions and Levels of Control:

A noticeable impact on the balance of the quantity of units withdrawn and the number of units available in this resource would occur in a drastic reduction of this subgroup's appropriation activities (inferred). Keeping in mind the physically available levels of withdrawal that are possible from this resource, the following shows the extent to which rules concerning different aspects of withdrawal constrain appropriation: technological rules lightly constrain (educated guess), time limit rules cause unknown contraints, quantity limits which limit the range of choice moderately constrain (educated guess), and marginal units or units obtained by increasing levels of appropriation have a high value immediate return (inferred).

Technology:

The appropriative power of the technology used threatens the balance between units withdrawn and units available even if no new users are added (inferred).

Strategies Adopted:

At the beginning of the period the rate of unit withdrawals was constant (educated guess). At the end of the period the rate of unit withdrawals was constant (educated guess). In irrigation, appropriation resources (at the beginning of the period) produce mostly paddy rice, and also non-tree fruits and vegetables, and sugar cane or beets. In irrigation, the appropriation resources (at the end of the period) produce mainly paddy rice, and also non-tree fruits and vegetables, and sugar cane or beets. During this time period members have invested resources, such as their own labor, in maintaining or improving the structure of the appropriation resource (inferred). Investment into constructing or improving production or distribution works for maintaining or improving their resource has not been made by members (educated guess). Resources have been expended (including time) to avoid actions that would harm the structure of the appropriation resource (inferred). Members have access to an alternative source of supply (inferred). Members of this group have not increased their use of alternative sources of supply of this unit (educated guess). At least one member has assumed entrepreneurial activity in trying to achieve coordinated strategies in relationship to both withdrawal and investment (educated guess). In characterizing the usual behavior of the members of this subgroup with respect to local operation level rules-in-use (other than in extreme shortage), it can be said that almost all of the members follow the rules set in place (inferred). The level of infraction of members who are not rule followers is generally small (inferred). No action has been proposed to alter the operational or collective-choice rules affecting the appropriation from this resource (inferred).

Subgroup Results:

This subgroup appropriates 91%-100% of its total appropriated units at the end of this period (highly confident). By the end of this time period the appropriates from this resource have remained approximately constant (highly confident). The absolute quantity of appropriation units obtained by this group has remained constant (inferred).

RESOURCE:

The resource appropriated from A Watercourse in Area Four is water for irrigation. The resource discussed in this study consists of a network of canals that deliver water to farmlands.

OPERATIONAL RULES:

Concerning national collective choice relating to the resource, the author provides relatively full information about operational level rules as devised by national collective choice mechanisms which have been coded below. Concerning regional collective choice, there is a regional level of government, but it does not exercise jurisdiction in relation to the type of resource appropriated by this subgroup.

With regard to local collective choice, a level of government or organization of appropriators exists at the location and the author provides a few detailed references about operational level rules as devised by collective choice mechanisms which have been coded below.

Boundary Rules

The following rules define the requirements that must be met before individuals are eligible to harvest or withdraw units from the appropriation resource.

The regional level(s) of government or organization had no jurisdiction over the resource.

A rule exists requiring ownership or leasing of land in the location of the resource. This rule is enforced at the national, local, and rules-in-use level(s).

Entry rights may be transmitted to anyone designated by the original owner.

Within one generation of potential resource appropriators, entry rights can be given, leased, rented, sold or transferred to others.

When transfer on a temporary or permanent basis is allowed, the person who makes the transfer determines to whom such rights can be transferred.

Authority and Scope Rules

The default conditions for both authority and scope rules do not apply.

The following paragraphs include information on rules of 1 cycle(s).

Authority Rules:

The regional level(s) of government or organization had no jurisdiction over the resource.

There is a rule requiring withdrawal at a fixed time slot, based on the needs during time period. This rule is enforced at the national, local, and rules-in-use level(s), and is part of the most restrictive, regularly adopted/used set of rules.

There is a rule forbidding withdrawal whenever and wherever desired, based on unspecific criteria. This rule is enforced at the national, local, and rules-in-use level(s), and is part of the most restrictive, regularly adopted/used set of rules.

The authority and scope rules do not apply to whether or not certain subgroups received substantially unequal privileges, because there is only one subgroup.

Scope Rules:

The regional level(s) of government or organization had no jurisdiction over the resource.

There is a rule requiring a periodically assessed appropriation tax, based on unincluded, specific criteria. This rule is enforced at the national and rules-in-use level(s), and is part of the most restrictive, regularly adopted/used set of rules.

There is a rule requiring a periodically assessed appropriation tax, however, the basis criteria for this rule was not included in the case information. This rule is enforced at the local level(s), and is part of the most restrictive, regularly adopted/used set of rules.

There is a rule requiring regular maintanence labor input however, the basis criteria for this rule was not included in the case information. This rule is enforced at the local and rules-in-use level(s), and is part of the most restrictive, regularly adopted/used set of rules.

There is a rule requiring emergency repair labor however, the basis criteria for this rule was not included in the case information. This rule is enforced at the local and rules-in-use level(s), and is part of the most restrictive, regularly adopted/used set of rules.

There is a rule requiring labor, money, or materials to be used for major capital investment, however, the basis criteria for this rule was not included in the case information. This rule is enforced at the rules-in-use level(s), and is part of the most restrictive, regularly adopted/used set of rules.

Information Rules

There exists a rule requiring recording of the number of units withdrawn. This rule is enforced at the national and rules-in-use level(s).

This information was recorded by a national administrative body.

There exists a rule requiring recording of the condition of the resource. This rule is enforced at the national and rules-in-use level(s).

This information was recorded by a national administrative body.

There exists a rule requiring recording appropriators' claims to the flow of units from the resource. This rule is enforced at the national and rules-in-use level(s).

This information was recorded by a national administrative body.

There exists a rule requiring recording of physical factors affecting the resource. This rule is enforced at the national and rules-in-use level(s).

This information was recorded by a national administrative body.

There exists a rule requiring recording of the rights and duties of the appropriators. This rule is enforced at the national and rules-in-use level(s).

This information was recorded by a national administrative body.

Payoff Rules

The default condition, that all appropriators can retain whatever they can physically keep hold of and no external rewards, taxes, or sanctions are imposed is not imposed in this case. The authors have the following confidence level for the results of this section: inferred. Incarceration is not imposed as penalty on appropriators for breaking rules related to the appropriation of this resource. Appropriators may not lose their entry or appropriation rights for breaking rules related to the appropriation of the resource. Severe community shunning is used for an unstated duration of time as a sanction that is consciously imposed on appropriators who break rules related to the appropriation of this resource. Appropriators cannot obtain external aid to develop their appropriation technologies. Appropriators can obtain aid from a national (private or public) agency(s) to develop or repair their production, distribution, or appropriation resources. Appropriators can obtain aid from a national (private or public) agency(s) to develop technologies for using the resource units.

The following percentages indicate the percentages assigned to individual positions. If more than one percentage is listed per position, the individual percentages refer to the different arrangements existing within the operational rules.

Aggregation Rules

Overall Questions About Rules Configuration

The general framework of the rules-in-use has governed the activities of this subgroup for 1 to 10 years.