- Resource System
- Terrestrial (including coastal and riparian) landscapes; associated watersheds and topography
- Resource Units
- Urban/rural/agricultural spaces, freshwater, biodiversity
The local municipalities of Bitou, Knysna, George, Mossel Bay, and Hessequa are situated in the Garden Route along the south coast of South Africa in the Eden District municipality, Western Cape province. The study area encompasses human developments along the coastline that stretch from the mouth of the Bloukrans River in the east to the Breede Estuary (Witsand) in the west, and inland to the foot of the Cape Fold Mountains. The Eden District action arena is characterized by (1) a poorly structured institutional framework that enables private development and individual mitigation action by (affluent) property owners which, through vulnerability transfer, effectively undermines coastal ecosystem functioning and the collective ability of the communities to ameliorate the adverse effects of global climate change; and (2) dual socio-economic structures which facilitate the privatization of public coastal areas by wealthy landowners, thus limiting community access to coastal resources.
This case study represents one of three coastal social-ecological systems (SESs) examined in collaboration with researchers in Britain, France, and South Africa as part of the Multi-Scale Adaptations to Climate Change and Social-Ecological Sustainability in Coastal Areas (MAGIC) research project funded by a Belmont grant. Information on the two other case studies, as well as the synthesis report of all three SESs, are located in the database as follows: Cornwall, Britain - case no. 297, Languedoc-Roussillon, France - case no. 298, and the synthesis analysis of all three sites - case no. 310.
INACTIVE - Contemporary inshore fisheries (as of 2014)
Resource System
The Western Cape coastal inshore fisheries resource consists of a heterogeneous mix of inshore marine and estuarine renewable resources, including stationary (Abalone) and resident/migratory species (a variety of demersal and pelagic fish species, among them Snoek, Kob, Geelbek, Yellowtail, Cape Bream, Squid, Pilchard, and shallow-water Hake). The distribution and quantity of the resources is highly unpredictable in space and time. The resource is sensitive to ocean currents, water temperature, salinity, pH levels, and a variety of other changes to the marine and estuarine ecosystems due, in part, to global climate change and pollution levels.
Resource Users
The dominant resource users consist of a heterogeneous mix of inshore fishermen (traditional line and inshore trawl fishermen, artisanal/small-scale and commercial fishermen). Inshore fishermen are spread out over various communities along the Western Cape Coast; some of them are organized in fishing organizations/cooperatives. Levels of trust and and social cohesion vary among fishing communities and are influenced by racial and ethnic biases. There is some indication that the long history of colonization and apartheid rule has obliterated many indigenous customs and traditions. Tourists engaging in a mix of use and non-use activities such as whale-watching, shark-cage diving, and sports fishing/angling.
Public Infrastructure Providers
Public infrastructure providers include a variety of federal and regional/local level agencies which provide funding and implement rules and regulations on the fishing industry, as well as statutory public institutions (CapeNature, SANBI). Monitoring and sanctioning of fisheries is conducted by the Chief Directorate Monitoring Control & Surveillance (MCS) within the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) which currently has limited capability to ensure compliance. Legal oversight is provided by the Hermanus Environmental Court. NGOs involved in the Western Cape fisheries include the World Wildlife Fund. Fishermen are represented (to varying degrees) by fishermen organizations, such as the SA Commercial Linefish Association, and various inshore fishing associations/cooperatives. (For a more detailed analysis of the public infrastructure providers, please see the Institutional Analysis).
Public Infrastructure
Hard public infrastructure includes harbors, ports, wharves, and other harbor infrastructure, including roads and railways to transport products to market, fishing area maps (DAFF). Soft public infrastructure includes various international obligations and agreements, as well as national, and regional laws regulating and licensing fishing vessels, issuing commercial and recreational fishing permits, fishing rights allocations, total allowable catch (TACs), total allowable effort (TAEs), etc. Also includes Black Economic Empowerment policies, as well as conservation laws and regulations restricting access to marine protected areas. Fishermen have access not ownership rights to fishing grounds. (For a more detailed analysis of the public infrastructure, please see the Institutional Analysis).
Relationship 1
The strategic interactions between resource users and the resource are facilitated by a variety of soft human and hard human-made infrastructures which are utilized to extract the resource. Soft infrastructure includes: the culture of individual fishing communities and fishermen's working knowledge of fishing grounds, as well as the perceived inequity of 2014 fishing rights allocation process which could facilitate illegal fishing and overharvesting of resources by marginalized communities. Culture of individual sports fishermen and tourists and their impacts on marine species such as sharks and cetaceans. Hard infrastructure includes: Boats, fishing equipment (inshore trawlers, hand-lines, long-lines, lobster pots, gill and tangle nets, etc.), bait, radios, buoys, hydraulic haulers, fathometers (to measure depths).
Relationship 2
The strategic interactions between resource users and public infrastructure providers include: The Chief Directorate Monitoring Control & Surveillance (MCS) currently has only limited monitoring and enforcement capability and relies on a supplemental monitoring network that consists of: Expansion of land-based observer monitoring program to traditional linefishing sector (program costs to be borne by fishermen) Voluntary compliance by fishermen. Public education programs. 2014 Allocation of Rights and Efforts in Traditional Linefish Fishery by DAFF has resulted in the approval of a significantly reduced number of applications which has led to widespread discontent among fishermen and an extended appeals process. Local coastal management committees appear to inadequately involve users on crucial issues and sometimes conflict with already existing local committees.
Relationship 3
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure providers and public infrastructure include: There is evidence of bribery and corruption of government officials. Delegation of fisheries management authority to provincial and local government levels. Conflicting laws, policies and procedures at national, regional, and local level resulting in uncertainty over which government agency has responsibility.
Relationship 4
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure and the resource include: Closure of abalone (Haliotis midae) fishery in the Western Cape in 2007 due to near-stock collapse has resulted in some species recovery. Declaration of Marine Protected Areas has the potential to lead to recovery of marine ecosystem biodiversity.
Relationship 5
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure and the resource dynamics include: TAC and TAE system appears to continue to favor whites and local elites, precluding access to marine food sources to marginalized subsistence communities resulting in the potential of poaching and overharvesting of marine species. TAE overallocation has resulted in overexploitation of target species in the traditional linefishing sector. Closure of abalone fishery affecting abolone harvesting by resource users. International trade agreements are fostering overexplotiation of demersal shark and other species for export. Very few marine species were identified by MCM as suitable for subsistence harvest based upon the assumption that there are no subsistence fishermen in the Western Cape leading to concerns that existing high levels of food insecurity of fishery households will lead to poaching and overexploitation.
Relationship 6
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure and the resource users include: Owners of fishing vessels must have a fishing vessel license and their boat must be equipped with an expensive vessel monitoring system. Fishermen are required to hold a fishing rightholder license. Fishermen are required to comply with Total Allowable Effort (TAEs) and Total Allowable Catch quotas. Recreational fishermen are required to comply with species' bag limits. Institutional dynamics of transformation policies are "locked into path dependency" which undermines intentions of MLRA further marginalizing subsistence and small-scale fishermen (e.g. 2014 failure to renew a majority of traditional line fishermen fishing rights). Black Economic Empowerment policies classifies all people of color (Indian, colored, Asian, and Black) as "Black."
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Resource System)
Anticipated global climate change impacts: increase in average mean, max., and min. temperatures; decrease in annual precipitation; increase in drought and extreme weather events and severity of both (including cyclones and storm-related flooding); increase in mean sea level. Higher than average (for South Africa) greenhouse gas emissions. Changes to the warm Agulhas and cold Benguela ocean currents. Increase in ocean acidification. Reduction in marine predator populations. Marine biodiversity loss. Impacts of foreign factory vessel harvesting on local marine resources.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Public Infrastructure)
Climate change and associated increase in severe weather events (storms, flooding) is anticipated to cause damage to hard public infrastructure, such as harbors, ports, wharves, roads, and railways. Soft public infrastructure disturbances include: The devolution of fisheries management authority to the regional/local level where the institutional capacity is limited to deal with issues of climate change and overharvesting of marine resources. Black Economic Empowerment policies ineffective and marred with perceptions of corruption and inequality. Public discontent and disillusionment with government policies by marginalized community members/fishermen.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Resource Users)
Poverty High unemployment (e.g., Tsitsikama) Legacy of colonialism and apartheid policies has resulted in the abrogation of traditional fishing rights and forced eviction/lack of access to resources now located in conservation areas (e.g. Tsitsikama). Inequality between elite white/black and minority colored and black populations. Lack of alternative economic opportunities for marginalized and/or subsistence community members. Influence of tourism on fisheries (emphasis on non-consumptive uses (whale and shark watching) - economic benefits are mainly captured by white business owners. Some marginalized communities view poaching as a retaliatory act against the disliked (unfair) policies of whites/elites.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Public Infrastructure Providers)
Neo-liberal policies fostering free market regulatory and ecosystem services management schemes. Continued influence of vested business interests (elite whites) hindering equitable access to marine resources for marginalized populations. Evidence of corruption and illegal activities (bribes of tribal chiefs and illegal exploitation of high value living marine resources (abolone)) appears to be a significant problem in the Southwest Cape region. Intense pressure on local public infrastructure providers from high-end coastal development companies.
Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Resource Users)
(none specified)Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Public Infrastructure Providers)
(none specified)INACTIVE - Agriculture (as of 2014)
Resource System
The Western Cape agricultural/terrestrial resources consist of a heterogeneous mix of terrestrial and agricultural renewable and non-renewable, stationary resources, such as soils, rivers, streams, grazing lands, agricultural lands, vineyards, and native terrestrial habitat (lowland renosterveld, fynbos biomes), as well as non-stationary faunal species (native species and livestock). The distribution and quantity of the natural and agricultural resources is somewhat unpredictable and can vary in space and time. The resource is sensitive to changes in temperature, precipitation, saltwater intrusion, and extreme weather events (flooding, drought, storms, sea level rise, etc.) which can be magnified by global climate change and pollution levels.
Resource Users
The dominant resource users are a heterogeneous mix of commercial farmers (mainly white) engaged in traditional farming practices, including livestock, dairy, horticultural and agricultural activities. Also includes vintners engaged in viticulture and enology. Some evidence of a growing organic farming movement. Agricultural statistics indicate an absence of small-scale, subsistence farming. Farm workers and laborers (black and colored). Levels of trust and social cohesion vary among farming communities. The relationship between farmers and farm workers/laborers appears to be marred by inequity and socio-economic injustices resulting in violent protests in early 2013. Tourists (non-consumptive (sightseeing, hiking, etc.) and consumptive uses (angling, hunting, etc.).
Public Infrastructure Providers
Public infrastructure providers include a variety of federal and regional/local level agencies which provide funding and implement rules and regulations, as well as a public research entity (Agricultural Research Council). Monitoring for compliance with the Extension of Security of Tenure Act (ESTA) is provided by officers of the Provincial Land Reform Office. Appeals are heard by the Land Claims Court. NGOs and academic institutions involved in the Western Cape agriculture include, the Programme for Land and Agrarian Studies (School of Government Western Cape) and the World Wildlife Fund. Some farm workers/laborers are represented by the Agricultural Workers Union. (For a more detailed analysis of the public infrastructure providers, please see the Institutional Analysis).
Public Infrastructure
Hard public infrastructure includes roads and railways to transport farming/dairy/livestock products to market, dikes/pumps and other water diversion infrastructure, public produce markets, and public facilities (parks and nature areas) to attract tourists. Soft public infrastructure includes various international, national, and regional laws regulating and licensing farms. Also includes conservation laws and regulations restricting access to sensitive native habitat and providing endangered species protections (Western Cape Stewardship Programme for Conservation and National Water Act). Farmers generally have land ownership rights to their farm lands. Farm dwellers who work for commercial farmers in exchange for access to arable land/grazing areas have been provided with land tenure rights under the Extension of Security Tenure Act implemented under the Land Reform Act. (For a more detailed analysis of the public infrastructure, please see the Institutional Analysis).
Relationship 1
Resource users employ a variety of soft human and hard human-made infrastructures to extract products from terrestrial resources. Some of these agricultural practices, such as growing water intensive crops (wheat, maize, fruits and barley) with a high reliance on irrigation techniques, appear to be negatively impacting water resources which are already in water deficit. Grazing practices are contributing to soil crusting and compaction, as well as native veld/fynbos degradation (e.g., Little Karoo). Soft infrastructure includes agricultural knowledge (often passed down through generations) and/or academic knowledge of farming practices, farming culture and social norms. Adaptation techniques and other climate change coping strategies are highly dependent on access of farmers to resources and capital.
Relationship 2
The strategic interactions between resource users and public infrastructure providers include: Lack of representation and input into agricultural affairs by marginalized populations (colored and blacks). Racial tensions (strikes, farm worker uprisings). Lack of subsidies and extension support for established commercial farmers and for emerging/developing black farmers. No apparent licensing requirements or oversight over farming activities (?) Burgeoning organic farming activity without official inspection or certification program.
Relationship 3
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure providers and public infrastructure include: Climate change mitigation strategies appear to lack implementation and/or enforcement at the regional/local governance level. Evidence of corruption within all levels of government. Path dependency rooted in colonial/apartheid policies appears to hinder the implementation/funding of policies that would alleviate socio-economic marginalization of black/colored populations.
Relationship 4
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure and the resource include: Landowner tax incentives for biodiversity conservation. Irrigation subsidies foster cultivation of high water use crops (maize, wheat, cotton, soya, barley, fruits, nuts).
Relationship 5
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure and resource dynamics include: Wealthier commercial farmers with resource and capital access are applying a variety of adaptation strategies in response to reduced freshwater availability (conversion to pasture and cattle farming) - such strategies will negatively impact soils. Irrigation subsidies available to commercial farming enterprises will result in further water use inefficiencies (over 60% of available freshwater resources are utilized through agricultural activities) with concomitant impacts on water resources and natural habitats.
Relationship 6
The strategic interactions between resource users and public infrastructure providers include: No apparent planning permissions and/or licensing requirements for farm lands, farming equipment, livestock raising/movement, pesticide/fertilizer use, farming techniques, water use, and farm waste. Government failure to monitor and enforce existing laws regarding Extension of Security of Tenure Act to protect farm dweller rights resulting in evictions, murder, and other human rights abuses. Evidence of continued marginalization of black and colored people (land dwellers working for farmers in exchange for subsistence access to agricultural land and/or grazing pastures) due to path dependency resulting from centuries of colonialism followed by more than 40 years of apartheid rule.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Resource System)
Anticipated global climate change impacts: increase in average mean, max., and min. temperatures; decrease in annual precipitation; increase in drought and extreme weather events and severity of both (including cyclones and storm-related flooding). High population growth and increasing demand for agricultural resources leading to decreased biodiversity, degradation of natural habitat, and water scarcity. Increased water extraction from groundwater aquifers is expected to contribute to sea level rise. Higher than average (for South Africa) greenhouse gas emissions in the Western Cape region.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Public Infrastructure)
Disturbances of the hard public infrastructure include the potential for damage to roads, harbors, and railway systems due to extreme weather events and sea level rise. Impact on natural ecosystems, rivers, and riparian areas by the development of dams and other water diversion techniques. Disturbances of the soft public infrastructure include: Public disaffection with federal, regional, and local policies. Influence of international laws and treaties, as well as market demands, on national and regional institutions.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Resource Users)
Poverty. High unemployment. High population growth rate. High migration levels. Inequitable land access and insecure land tenure rights due to pervasive influence of colonial and apartheid policies on contemporary political landscape. Lack of food and tenure security. Dual economies - predominantly wealthy white and poor black and colored population groups. Racial tensions (most farm owners are white, most farm workers/farm dwellers are black/colored).
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Public Infrastructure Providers)
Evidence of corruption and ineffectiveness of ruling political party. High unemployment. Social and political unrest. Environmental uncertainty. Neoliberal laissez-faire policies.
Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Resource Users)
(none specified)Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Public Infrastructure Providers)
(none specified)INACTIVE - Urban/rural settlements
Resource System
The Western Cape urban/rural settlements resources consist of a heterogeneous mix of surface geology, hydrology, floral and faunal resources within which individual human-built environments are nested. These resources can be stationary (geological and floral) or transient (hydrology and faunal). The distribution of the resources is somewhat predictable (geology, hydrology) and unpredictable (floral, faunal). The quantity of hydrological, floral, and faunal resources varies in space and time. The resources are sensitive to changes in temperature, precipitation levels, degradation, and pollution.
Resource Users
--The resource users are a heterogeneous mix of urban and rural residents of varying ethnic groups. The socio-economic status of the resource users varies but its general categorization remains influenced by colonialism and apartheid rule with whites being generally more affluent and blacks/colored populations being poorer and more socio-economically marginalized. --Tourists (domestic and international). Levels of trust and social cohesion vary by community. However, there appears to be a tendency towards distrust and disaffection of blacks/colored people towards the ruling elites.
Public Infrastructure Providers
Public infrastructure providers include a variety of federal and regional/local level agencies which provide funding and implement rules and regulations, including development planning, climate change adaptation policies, and conservation measures. Monitoring and sanctioning is conducted by a mix of national, regional, and local government agencies. Judicial oversight of these policies is provided by the South African court system. (For a more detailed analysis of the public infrastructure providers, please see the Institutional Analysis).
Public Infrastructure
Hard public infrastructure includes dams, coastal set-back lines, roads, electricity and other energy delivery systems, water delivery, waste removal, education, etc.). It also includes tourism-specific infrastructure (e.g. promenades and waterfront developments, beach resorts and facilities, coastal routes, etc.) Soft public infrastructure includes coastal and disaster management plans and strategies, as well as socio-economic improvement policies, at various levels of government and in various agencies with a general tendency to assign main responsibility for the implementation of these policies to regional/local governance institutions which generally appear to lack the resources and know-how for proper implementation of the same. Also includes conservation laws and regulations restricting access to sensitive native habitat and providing endangered species protections. (For a more detailed analysis of the public infrastructure, please see the Institutional Analysis).
Relationship 1
The resource users employ a variety of soft human and hard human-made infrastructures to extract and/or benefit from the resources. Hard human-made infrastructures include plumbing and energy delivery systems, roads, railways, and ports to obtain food resources. Soft human infrastructures include social and cultural norms within communities which affect habits and related resource usage (e.g., level of consumerism), knowledge of community and place within the ecosystem (e.g., likelihood of resource users to live in a property that is subject to flooding), education, and socio-economic position in society. The continued marginalization of blacks/colored people is resulting in the development of peri-urban informal settlements which lack access to energy and wastewater resources facilitating land degradation, biodiversity loss, and pollution. These settlements are also subject to higher risk of human and environmental damage due to extreme weather events.
Relationship 2
The strategic interactions between resource users and public infrastructure providers include: Planning permissions and licensing requirements for rural and urban development that does not encompass or account for the deprivation of marginalized populations living in informal peri-urban settlements. Monitoring (ineffective) for compliance with environmental management standards for protecting habitats and wildlife, managing soil and water, controlling household chemical and water use. Limited influence and input into public policy decision-making (voting and stakeholder input on development projects) by the marginalized poor (mainly black and colored population living in informal peri-urban settlements).
Relationship 3
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure providers and public infrastructure include: The roles and responsibilities of various agencies tend to be poorly defined and communicated. Competing interests between agencies result in uncertainties as to which agency ultimately has responsibility. Corruption of government officials and shirking of rules by elites.
Relationship 4
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure and the resource include: Ecological reserve mandate and Fynbos restoration projects appear to be increasing biodiversity. Increased pollution due to peri-urban informal settlements adversely affecting natural systems. Reduced adaptability to climate change due to risks associated with peri-urban informal settlements.
Relationship 5
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure and resource dynamics include: Land development planning appears ineffective in mitigation/adaptation to climate change. Fynbos restoration projects appear to be improving water yields in some areas. Federal conservation laws establishing protected areas are aiding the recovery of biodiversity and possibly ecosystem resilience in some areas. Ecosystem improvement schemes are at risk if increased socio-economic instability forces marginalized and socio-economically deprived population to engage in illegal harvesting and exploitation of natural resources. Increased pollution due to peri-urban informal settlements is negatively affecting ecosystems and groundwater resources.
Relationship 6
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure and resource users include: Legal challenges by poor minorities against continued social-economic marginalization (claims of habitation, claims for enjoyment of urban services, including public transport, electricity, water services). Fynbos restoration projects (improve tourism prospects). Proposed coastal development setback lines affecting coastal residents. Apparent policy failure to deal with inequity of marginalized poor and to provide basic public services (electric, water, waste disposal) to peri-urban informal settlements.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Resource System)
Anticipated global climate change impacts: increase in average mean, max., and min. temperatures; decrease in annual precipitation; increase in drought and extreme weather events and severity of both (including cyclones and storm-related flooding). Higher than average (for South Africa) greenhouse gas emissions. Increased risk of drought and wildfires.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Public Infrastructure)
Disturbances of the hard public infrastructure include: Damage to public infrastructure, including roads, railways, ports, harbors, public buildings, energy and water delivery infrastructure systems by severe weather events. Disturbances of the soft public infrastructure include: Riots and unrest associated with inequity and dual economic structure which continues to marginalize large segments of the population in favor of minority white/black elites.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Resource Users)
Racial/ethnic inequality. High rate of population growth. High rate of migration (from other provinces and countries). Urbanization (movement of rural populations to peri-urban informal settlements). Poverty and food insecurity of marginalized populations. Dual economies and disparity in socio-economic equity between affluent white minorities and poor urban populations (black and colored).
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Public Infrastructure Providers)
Neoliberal laissez-faire governance. Devolution of powers and functions to regional governments. International funding schemes from and influence of international institutions and governments (e.g., World Bank, economic cooperation and development agencies from Germany, Britain, and Norway, etc.). "Poo-Protest" movement against the deplorable conditions in informal peri-urban settlements.
Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Resource Users)
(none specified)Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Public Infrastructure Providers)
(none specified)Coastal development / Eden District municipality
Resource System
Resource system (natural infrastructure):
- Terrestrial (including coastal and riparian) landscapes; associated watersheds and topography (shared).
Resource units:
- Affordances flowing from urban, rural, agricultural spaces, freshwater sources, and ecosystem biodiversity
Resource Users
There are three main subgroups that are important in this case:
- Heterogeneous mix of farmers, urban, and rural residents, as well as seasonal second home owners.
- Development industry professionals, including architects, engineers, developers, planners, environmental practitioners, and government regulators (27).
- Significant number of tourists.
Public Infrastructure Providers
Public infrastructure providers in the Eden District municipality are hierarchically organized in four tiers as follows:
- National government;
- One provincial government (Western Cape province);
- One district municipality (Eden District);
- Four local municipalities (Mossel Bay, George, Kynsa, and Bitou).
Public Infrastructure
Hard public infrastructure:
- Utilities infrastructure (electricity, gas, freshwater delivery);
- Roads (national and provincial);
- Coastal defense systems (sea walls, groynes, etc.).
Soft public infrastructure:
- National Environmental Management Act (NEMA)
- National Development Plan (NDP) - Vision 2030.
- Spatial Development Plan (SDP) - guided by NDP.
- Integrated Development Plans (IDPs) - alignment of national, regional, and provincial plans at local level.
- Historical land rights.
Relationship 1
RU => R:
- Developers and property owners are consuming land for coastal housing development.
- Insensitive building of properties on frontal dunes or in critical wetland areas disrupts ecosystem functioning and destroys nonhuman habitat.
- Attempts made by private property owners and estates to (illegally) monopolize stretches of the public beach restricts the use of cultural and provisioning ecosystem services by local communities.
- Sand dune development is transforming coastal sand dune system leading to erosion, building collapse or submersion of properties in sand.
- Mitigation action by individual property owners is transferring vulnerability to other property owners and/or the community at large.
R => RU (potential disservices/negative feedbacks):
- Property owners endure losses from extreme flooding events and/or development related shifts in dune integrity.
Relationship 2
PIP => RU:
- No known interaction.
RU => PIP:
- No known influence.
Relationship 3
PIP => PI (soft):
- Coastal development planning at the district municipality level (IDPs) is constrained by a perpetual revision process in which the implementation of existing coastal development rules are drafted and revised annually.
- Lack of aggregation rules is constraining coordination of coastal zoning, historical building conservation, and environmental protection laws leading by improper application of rules at the local level.
- Local government positions are not provided (appointed) in a timely manner leaving critical positions vacant for extended periods of time.
PI (soft) => PIP:
- No known influence.
PI (hard) => PIP:
- No known influence.
Relationship 4
PI (hard) => R:
- Bulldozing of the Touw River estuary to artificially open the river mouth whenever the river elevation exceeds a certain height is transforming the river and estuarine ecology.
- The pipes of the desalination plant in Mossel Bay are altering sand movement thereby inhibiting coastal sand dune formation and integrity.
Relationship 5
PI (soft) => [RU => R]:
- National Environmental Management Act in 1998 did not restrict private estate developments.
- Lack of approval of planned retreat and setback lines is enabling continued development in areas that are vulnerable to severe weather events.
- Lack of enforcement of 5-meter state land coastal zone has incentivized the development and degradation of public coastal dunes through encroachment of private property owners.
- Oversight and enforcement of laws and regulations related to coastal development is restricted due to failure to fill government positions.
- Drive by the national government to increase lost tourism revenues by transferring public lands to private ownership enabled increase in coastal area development.
- Historical rights claims enable homeowners affected by disaster to rebuild homes in areas prone to severe weather events.
- Lack of monitoring and sanctioning enables private homeowners to ignore public beach property and illegally convert it into a private good through enclosure of public area, as well as by building gardens and hard coastal defenses on public property.
PI (hard) => [RU => R]:
- Dune stabilization through targeted vegetation to protect hard human-made infrastructure (roads, buildings, etc.) may be enabling coastal erosion in other areas.
- Ad hoc management of system is enabling uncontrolled storm runoff which is contributing to coastal erosion.
Relationship 6
RU => PI (soft):
- Development professionals feel disempowered over development decision-making procedures.
PI (soft) => RU:
- Lack of capacity to implement existing rules and regulations (lack of manpower and equipment).
- Complex and time-consuming application process (zoning, building, etc.) is enculturating the circumvention of rules by developers/landowners, including illegal development of structures.
- Government’s handling of illegal development of structures (fines only - structure stays) is shaping expectations among resource users, i.e., leading to the regularization of illegal coastal development.
- Local municipalities do not monitor or sanction the illegal conversion of public beach property into a private good by wealthy seasonal property owners, who fortify and enclose beach areas thereby restricting legal access of the beach to the public.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Resource System)
Exogenous natural resource system drivers:
Anticipated global climate change impacts include:
- Increase in average mean, max., and min. temperatures;
- Decrease in annual precipitation;
- Increased frequency of "cut-off low" events (cut-off low is a closed low in the upper troposphere that has become completely detached from the basic westerly current, is slow moving, and can stay over a region for several days);
- Increase in drought and extreme weather events (sea surges and flooding) and severity of both (including cyclones and storm-related flooding).
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Public Infrastructure)
Exogenous natural resource system driver on hard public infrastructure:
- Global climate change-induced extreme weather events are generating uncertainty with regard to the long-term viability of the human-built community (homes, historical buildings, roads, bridges, etc.).
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Resource Users)
Exogenous economic drivers:
- Poverty and food insecurity of marginalized populations.
- Dual economies and disparity in socio-economic equity between affluent white minorities and poor urban populations (black and colored).
Exogenous social drivers:
- Racial/ethnic inequality.
- Urbanization (movement of rural populations to peri-urban informal settlements).
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Public Infrastructure Providers)
Constitutional level:
- Budgeting conflicts and lack of funding (national).
Meta-constitutional level:
- International best practice - influence of UN and Southern African Development Community (SADAC) recommendations.
- International laws influence South African coastal development and environmental protection laws.
Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Resource Users)
(none specified)Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Public Infrastructure Providers)
(none specified)Brady U, Arizona State University.
. 2019. Nurturing ecosystem-based adaptations in South Africa’s Garden Route: a common pool resource governance perspective. Regional Environmental Change. 19(7)