- Resource System
- Terrestrial (including coastal and riparian) landscapes; associated watersheds and topography
- Resource Units
- Urban/rural/agricultural spaces, freshwater, biodiversity
Cornwall is located in southwest England on the Cornish peninsula. It stretches between the cities of Bude and Plymouth in the north and Penzance and Falmouth in the south. The study area encompasses numerous communities of various sizes in the coastal and inland areas, including within the Tamar catchment along the rivers Camel, Fowey, Looe, as well as coastal lagoons and basins, and a mix of freshwater and brackish wetlands. The Cornwall study site is catalogued by an action arena in which: (1) governance structures wrestle with conflicting biodiversity and anthropogenic goals; while (2) government austerity measures and lack of aggregation rules result in temporal policy tradeoffs and impede attempts at creating polycentric governance structures (inferred); and (3) dual socio-economic structures and global climate change undermine social and biophysical cohesion.
This case study represents one of three coastal social-ecological systems (SESs) examined in collaboration with researchers in Britain, France, and South Africa as part of the Multi-Scale Adaptations to Climate Change and Social-Ecological Sustainability in Coastal Areas (MAGIC) research project funded by a Belmont grant. Information on the two other case studies, as well a comparative analysis of all three SESs can be found by following the "Related Studies and Models" link below.
Coastal management feedbacks and drivers
Resource System
Resource system (natural infrastructure):
- Terrestrial (including coastal and riparian) landscapes; associated watersheds and topography (shared).
Resource units:
- Affordances flowing from urban, rural, agricultural spaces, freshwater sources, and ecosystem biodiversity.
Resource Users
There are two main subgroups that are important in this case:
- Heterogeneous mix of farmers, urban and rural residents (approx. 532,000), as well as second home owners from areas outside Cornwall.
- Significant number of tourists
Public Infrastructure Providers
Government entities:
- Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra)
Operating Authorities:
- Environmental Agency (EA)
- Local Authorities (LA) (one unitary authority: Cornwall Council)
Executive and Advisory Bodies:
- Regional Flood and Coastal Committees - in Cornwall: (1) South West Regional Flood and Coastal Committee located in Exeter, Devon; and (2) Area Flood and Coastal Committee located in Bodmin, Cornwall
- Coastal advisory groups - in Cornwall: Cornwall and Isles of Scilly Coastal Advisory Group (CISCAG)
Other key groups, bodies, organizations:
- Natural England (non-departmental public body of UK government)
- National Trust (national NGO)
- Network Rail
- South West Water (a private monopoly).
Public Infrastructure
Hard public infrastructure
- Utilities infrastructure (electricity, gas, water delivery);
- Public transportation (bus and rail);
- Roads (national and county); and
- Coastal defense systems (sea walls, groynes, rock armour).
Soft public infrastructure includes:
- Flood and Water Management Act 2010 (influenced by EU ICZM)
- Flood Risk Regulations 2009 (national implementation of EU Floods Directive via EA and LA)
- Water Environment (Water Framework Directive) Regulations 2003 (national implementation of EU Water Framework Directive via EA)
- Planning Policy Statement 25 (PPS25)
- Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulations 2010 (implementation of EU Habitats Directive)
- Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 (implementation of EU Birds Directive)
- Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs) => non-statutory, high level planning documents
Relationship 1
RU => R:
- Resource users extract and transform land for a variety of competing purposes (urban and agricultural land development, heritage sites, tourism, and biodiversity protection).
- Traditional knowledge of ecosystem functioning and land/flood management (or lack thereof) within communities influences resource users' interaction with the land.
- Some coastal property owners must decide whether to defend or retreat.
- Private coastal/riparian defense works transfer flood risk to other areas/communities.
R => RU (potential disservices/negative feedback):
- Residents endure losses from extreme flooding events (e.g., Boscastle).
- Coastal processes are eroding shorelines threatening some existing seaside properties and communities.
Relationship 2
RU=>PIP:
- Past coastal defense work shapes expectations of RU that government's line of defense will continue to be maintained.
PIP=>RU:
- EA area staff as first point of contact for the public shapes expectations related to emergency situations
- EA and Cornwall Council manage disputes related to Shoreline Management Plans
- LA provides local services to RU
- Operating agencies petition external funding contributions from businesses and communities.
Relationship 3
PIP=>PI (hard):
- Defra Minister influences/constrains coastal management projects via confirmation of the "sanctioned list" of projects for the upcoming year.
PIP=>PI (soft):
- 2007: Defra, EA, and Local Government Association (LGA) produce a new coastal strategic overview role for EA which is to align with ICZM (international), Water Framework Directive (international), and Shoreline Management Plans (national) guidelines/directives.
- Austerity measures and associated funding shortfalls are constraining LA ability to maintain enough coastal risk management posts resulting in near 50 percent reduction in LA staff.
Defra:
- Defra produces overall national policy for flood and coastal erosion risk management.
- Defra provides funding to EA.
- Defra constrains the implementation of Strategic Environmental Assessments by making it a recommendation for the development of Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs), not a statutory requirement.
EA and LA:
- EA provides flood and coastal risk management capital funding and constrains allocation of funds towards approved schemes.
- EA produces and maintains national Flood and Coastal Risk Management strategies.
- LA produces Local Flood Risk Management strategies within the framework of national strategies.
- Coastal Group maintains SMP in collaboration with LA.
- EA influences SMP through quality review and approval process.
PI (soft)=>PIP:
- 2009 government restructuring program concentrates coastal risk management engineering work (sea defense and coastal erosion) into one LA (Cornwall Council).
- Flood and Water Management Act 2010 (FWMA) provides EA with the oversight authority of all flood and coastal erosion risk management in England (transfer of power from Defra to EA), including the power and duty to develop, maintain, apply and monitor a strategy for flood and coastal erosion risk management in England.
- FWMA provides LA with power to perform coastal erosion and sea flooding works with EA consent.
- FWMA expands Regional Flood and Coastal Committee's role and ability to collect local levies to cover coastal erosion as well as flood risk.
Relationship 4
PI (soft)=>R:
- Lack of management posts eroding the capacity of LA to carry out coastal risk management functions (sea defense and coastal protection engineering work)
PI (hard)=>R:
- Coastal defense works alter coastal morphology and sediment supply exchanges resulting in "sediment starvation" and coastal erosion, thereby reducing coastal buffering ability.
- Sand dredging for building material construction transforms coastal structure and morphology.
Relationship 5
Link 1=>PI (soft):
- Frequency of flood occurrences coupled with an exemption to water quality regulation standards during such emergencies is incentivizing circumvention of water quality standards in general.
PI (soft)=>Link 1:
- PPS25 restricts inappropriate development in areas of flood risk, but also promotes sustainable development in areas of coastal change when no lower risk sites are available and development is necessary and safe.
- Shoreline Management Plan (SMP) implementation restricted by lack of guaranteed funding and non-statutory legal status of the SMP.
- Lack of dialogue between spatial planners in Local Planning Authorities and Coastal Group incentivizing inappropriate coastal development contrary to SMP guidelines.
- EA, LAs, Natural England required to find compensatory endangered bird habitat if areas protected under EU policy (SACs and SPAs) are affected by coastal management strategies.
Potential overlapping authorities:
- EA monitors coastal activities, including coastal erosion projects and third party defense works, and Coastal Committee monitors, maintains and improves sea and tidal defenses.
- EA enabled with concurrent power to construct same coastal works as LAs, including sea defenses (Flood and Water Management Act – FWMA for EA; and Coast Protection Act for LA).
- EA enabled to secure outfall of a main river (Water Resources Act); LA enabled to undertake flood defense works on watercourse not designated main river and not governed by an internal drainage board; and Coastal Committee regulates water courses designated as main rivers to alleviate flooding.
- EA and LA enabled to conduct compulsory land purchases, if needed to maintain coastal defenses (FWMA and Coast Protection Act).
Relationship 6
RU=> PI (soft):
- Coastal residents feel disempowered over policies related to coastal development.
PI (soft)=>RU:
- EA empowered to order an owner or occupier of land to undertake coast protection work where a historical obligation exists to maintain such defenses (Flood and Water Management Act - FWMA).
- EA empowered to carry out emergency coast protection works in any area it deems necessary (overriding private property rights (implied)) (FWMA).
- EA and Coastal Committee provide flood warning system (Water Resources Act).
- Coastal Committee restricts actions by riparian owners and occupiers that may interfere with water course flows.
- No statutory right to government compensation for homes lost to waves or relocation expenses.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Resource System)
Exogenous natural resource system drivers:
- Sea level rise (net sea level rise predicted at 5 mm/yr constant rate)
- Extreme sea level change (combination of extreme high tide, wave, and storm surge events which are anticipated to occur with greater frequency and severity)
- Increased precipitation with associated severe storms and inland flooding
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Public Infrastructure)
Exogenous natural resource system driver on hard public infrastructure:
- Global climate change-induced extreme weather events are generating uncertainty with regard to the long-term viability of the human-built hard infrastructure (homes, historical buildings, roads, bridges, etc.).
Exogenous policy driver on soft infrastructure:
- Lack of coordination and mismatch (divergent goals) of various laws dealing with coastal zone development at all governance levels.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Resource Users)
Exogenous economic drivers:
- Stagnant income levels and high poverty rates.
- Dual economic structure facilitated by the influx of wealthy outsiders driving economic conditions higher and making living less affordable for native residents.
- Loss of former sources of income (agriculture, mining, fisheries) and predominant reliance on amenity industry as economic driver.
Exogenous social drivers:
- Population exchange (out-migration of young people in search of income opportunities and in-migration of second-home owners).
- Second home owners may be contributing to new development in areas that are prone to severe weather events.
- Strong sense of place (locals) versus amenity value considerations (second-home owners)
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Public Infrastructure Providers)
Metaconstitutional level:
- European Coastal Zone Management Directive (international)
- European Directive on the Assessment and Management of Flood Risks aka Floods Directive (international)
- Water Framework Directive (European Union)
- Strategic Environmental Assessment EU Directive
- European Habitats and Birds Directives
Constitutional level:
- Decentralization and Localism Act 2011 (national)
- Austerity measures (national economic policy)
Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Resource Users)
(none specified)Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Public Infrastructure Providers)
(none specified)INACTIVE - Contemporary inshore fisheries (as of 2014)
Resource System
The Cornwall inshore fisheries resource consists of a heterogeneous mix of inshore marine and estuarine renewable resources, including stationary (shellfish, molluscs, crustaceans, etc.) and resident/migratory species (a variety of demersal and pelagic fish species). The distribution and quantity of the resources is highly unpredictable and varies in space and time. The resource is sensitive to ocean currents, water temperatures, salinity, pH-levels, and a variety of changes to the marine and estuarine ecosystems due, in part, to global climate change and pollution levels.
Resource Users
Heterogeneous mix of inshore fishermen (large vessel operators, small-scale family enterprises, "Under-10-Metre" fishing boat operators). Inshore fishermen are spread out over various communities along the Cornwall coast and are organized in a variety of fishing organizations. Levels of trust and social cohesion vary among fishing communities. Recreational fishermen (sports fishing, shark catch and release). Tourists (non-use activities, such as cetacean watching). Undocumented migrant workers engaged in clandestine exploitation of marine resources (cockle pickers).
Public Infrastructure Providers
Public infrastructure providers include a variety of federal and regional/local level agencies which provide funding and implement rules and regulations on the fishing industry, as well as statutory advisors to the UK government and regional/local level administrations. Monitoring and sanctioning is conducted by a mix of national, regional, and local government agencies, private contractors, and the UK court system. NGOs involved in the Cornwall fisheries include, among others, the Cornwall Wildlife Trust and Greenpeace. Fishermen are represented (to varying degrees) by fishermen organizations, such as the New Under Ten Fishermen's Association (NUTFA); South West Handline Fishermen Association; Cornish Fish Producers Organization; and various inshore fishing associations/cooperatives. (For a more detailed analysis of the public infrastructure providers, please see the Institutional Analysis).
Public Infrastructure
Hard public infrastructure includes harbors, ports, wharves, and other harbor infrastructure, roads and railways to transport products to market, maps of Southwest Inshore marine plan area (fishing area) (MMO), regional/local fishing maps, fishing reports (MMO). Soft public infrastructure includes various international, national, and regional laws regulating and licensing fishing vessels, catch quotas, and fishing effort, etc. Also includes conservation laws and regulations restricting access to certain marine protected areas, size restrictions of and access to target species. Fishermen have access not ownership rights to fishing grounds. (For a more detailed analysis of the public infrastructure, please see the Institutional Analysis).
Relationship 1
The strategic interactions between resource users and the resource are facilitated by a variety of soft human and hard human-made infrastructures which are utilized to extract the resource. Soft infrastructure includes: the culture of individual fishing communities, fishermen's working knowledge of fishing grounds, trade-off between economic incentives to overharvest resources and social/cultural pressure to abide by the rules. Culture of individual sports fishermen and tourists and their impacts on marine species such as sharks and cetaceans. Hard infrastructure includes: Boats, fishing equipment (long-lines, lobster pots, gill and tangle nets, etc.), bait, radios, buoys, hydraulic haulers, fathometers (to measure depths), banana pinger (to reduce cetacean bycatch).
Relationship 2
The strategic interactions between resource users and public infrastructure providers include: Marine enforcement officers (government employees) perform inspections of fishing vessels at sea and in port to monitor and record catches. Enforcement of fishing laws and regulations via administrative penalties or civil/criminal prosecution (depending on severity of violation). Regulations mandate vessel monitoring systems and electronic logbooks of catches Fishing quota system facilitates unfair quota allocation to industrialized fleet and leasing of unused quota at exorbitant prices marginalizing under-10 metre inshore small-scale fishermen Small-scale fishermen not adequately represented on Cornish IFCA "Be a Fisherman's Friend" alliance between Greenpeace and small-scale fishermen to raise awareness of negative impact of rules on this group
Relationship 3
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure providers and public infrastructure include: Appointment process of Cornish IFCA facilitates the installation of IFCA members with government ideologies which may lead to lop-sided decision making Influence of big corporate fishing interests facilitates rules and regulations favoring industrialized fishing over small-scale, under-10 metre fishing operators
Relationship 4
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure and the resource include: Cornish IFCA Byelaws too inflexible and unadaptive to deal with changes in marine environment due to climate change Establishment of a variety of Marine Protected Areas (SPAs, SSSIs, SACs, and MCZs) creating recovery zones for some marine species
Relationship 5
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure and the resource dynamics include: "Threshold effect" due to division between over ten and under ten fishing operators resulting in an increase of fishing regulation "rule beaters" ("over 10" boat owners buying "super under 10 boats" with greater technological capacity to circumvent catch limits) EU legislation resented by local fishermen leading to increased likelihood of overharvesting Quota system and size limitations not responsive to marine ecosystem conditions (quotas increase while species decrease)
Relationship 6
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure and the resource users include: Fishermen must have a vessel license Fishermen must apply for fishing permits (crustaceans and molluscs) or fishing quotas Fishermen must comply with fishing effort schemes to protect collapsed resources (cod and sole) and CIFCA Byelaws and size limit restrictions Monitoring and sanctioning process is less effective with regard to large commercial vessels than it is for the Under-10-metre fleet
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Resource System)
Global climate change and uncertainty regarding effects on marine trophic structures. Unseasonably cold sea temperatures versus general ocean warming trends. Reduction in marine predator populations. Marine biodiversity loss. Impacts of foreign factory vessel harvesting on local marine resources.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Public Infrastructure)
Climate change and associated increase in severe weather events (storms, flooding) is causing extensive damage to hard public infrastructure, such as harbors, ports, wharves, roads and railways. Soft public infrastructure disturbances include the adverse effects of EU fishing policies limiting access to fishing grounds and UK government mismanagement of national quota allocation (making quotas a tradeable commodity). Industrial-scale fishing operators appear to be more effective in molding the rules in their favor which appears to negatively impact small-scale, under-10 metre fishermen.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Resource Users)
Economic deprivation of small-scale, under-10-Metre fleet operators. Greater dependence on government support by small-scale fishermen to economically survive bad weather events. Divergent interests and influence of commercial versus small-scale fishermen. Poverty and inadequate UK immigration laws facilitating the creation of clandestine human slave labor markets engaged in illegal resource exploitation. Influence of sustainable, slow-food, know your food movement favoring small-scale, sustainable fisheries. Creation of marine protected areas/estuaries has greater impact on small-scale inshore fishermen.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Public Infrastructure Providers)
Neo-liberal policies advocating free market approaches to climate change and reduction in government social safety net. Small-scale fishermen have limited representation on Cornish IFCA and little input into policy decisions affecting fisheries. Cornish IFCA appointment process enables the installment of government representatives fostering prevailing government ideologies which may be contrary and unresponsive to local needs.
Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Resource Users)
(none specified)Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Public Infrastructure Providers)
(none specified)INACTIVE - Agriculture (as of 2014)
Resource System
The Cornwall agricultural/terrestrial resources consist of a heterogeneous mix of terrestrial and agricultural renewable and non-renewable resources, including soils, rivers, streams, woodlands, moorlands, and riparian habitats, as well as a variety of stationary floral (native and agricultural plants, including grasslands) and non-stationary faunal species (native species and livestock). The distribution and quantity of the natural and agricultural resources is somewhat unpredictable and can vary in space and time. The resource is sensitive to changes in temperature, precipitation, saltwater intrusion, and extreme weather events (flooding, drought, storms, sea level rise, etc.) which can be magnified by global climate change and pollution levels.
Resource Users
The resource users are a heterogeneous mix of farmers engaged in traditional and organic production methods, including livestock raising, dairy, horticultural and agricultural activities. Levels of trust and social cohesion vary among farming communities. Tourists (non-consumptive (sightseeing, hiking, etc.) and consumptive uses (angling, hunting, etc.). Migratory workers.
Public Infrastructure Providers
Public infrastructure providers include a variety of federal and regional/local level agencies which provide funding and implement rules and regulations, as well as statutory advisors to the UK government and regional/local level administrations. Monitoring and sanctioning is conducted by a mix of national, regional, and local government agencies, and the UK court system. NGOs involved in Cornwall agriculture include, the Cornwall Wildlife Trust and the Conservation Foundation. Farmers are represented (to varying degrees) by local and regional farm cooperatives and the National Farmers Union. Migratory workers are represented by Gangmasters Licensing Authority (federal government agency). (For a more detailed analysis of the public infrastructure providers, please see the Institutional Analysis).
Public Infrastructure
Hard public infrastructure includes roads and railways to transport farming/dairy/livestock products to market, dikes/pumps and other water diversion infrastructure, public produce markets, and public facilities (parks and nature areas) to attract tourists. Soft public infrastructure includes various international, national, and regional laws regulating and licensing farms, farm vehicles, livestock, farming activities, animal movement, abattoirs, water catchment, soils, and farming practices. Also includes conservation laws and regulations restricting access to sensitive native habitat and providing endangered species protections. Farmers have leasing or ownership rights to their farm lands. (For a more detailed analysis of the public infrastructure, please see the Institutional Analysis).
Relationship 1
Resource users employ a variety of soft human and hard human-made infrastructures to extract products from terrestrial resources. Soft infrastructure includes agricultural knowledge (often passed down through generations) and/or academic knowledge of farming practices, farming culture and social norms, diverse farming strategies (traditional and organic, small-scale and industrial). Hard infrastructure includes agricultural equipment, farm vehicles, environmental waste storage facilities, rural septic tanks, fertilizers and pesticides used, dredging equipment.
Relationship 2
The strategic interactions between resource users and public infrastructure providers include: Planning permissions and licensing requirements for farm lands, farming equipment, livestock raising/movement, and farm waste. Compliance with agricultural management standards for protecting habitats and wildlife, managing soil and water, controlling chemical use and animal health, welfare and identification. Disease notification requirements. Ineffective/limited monitoring for compliance by the Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). Small-holder farmers and agricultural producers have little input in agricultural decision making and policy.
Relationship 3
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure providers and public infrastructure include: Hard public infrastructure is impacted by river dredging schemes, agricultural land development, coppicing and pollarding of trees in riparian areas, all of which can serve to increase or decrease the impacts of extreme flooding events. Enactment of conservation policies to increase biodiversity and mitigate the effects of severe weather events. Agricultural policies are partially ineffective in implementing good overall land stewardship and seem to foster socio-economic marginalization of farmers.
Relationship 4
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure and the resource include: Conservation policies somewhat effective in improving natural habitat and ecosystem resilience in certain areas.
Relationship 5
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure and resource dynamics include: Agricultural rules and regulations only have limited success in reducing the negative impacts of farming activities, such as soil erosion rates, water absorption rates, overall water usage, the pollution of freshwater resources through agricultural runoff, all of which effect local wildlife populations and ecosystem resilience. Federal conservation laws establishing protected areas, such as SACs, SSSIs, and SPCAs are aiding in recovery of biodiversity and possibly ecosystem resilience.
Relationship 6
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure and resource users include: Farmers must register their land and apply for farm planning permissions. Farmers must register their farm vehicles. Farmers must license farm animal movements and register as a milk production facility (if a dairy). Farmers must cross-comply with Statutory Management Requirements (SMRs), i.e., agricultural management standards set out in EU and UK law, as well as the good agricultural and environmental condition (GAEC) land management standards (UK law). Farmers and agricultural landowners can apply for an entry level stewardship program.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Resource System)
Increased precipitation, severe flooding events due to global climate change. Land use change due to agricultural activities (farming, sheep and cattle grazing) and urban development with corresponding changes to runoff absorption, soil structure, and freshwater resources.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Public Infrastructure)
Disturbances of the hard public infrastructure include: Dredging of rivers and streams; Water catchment work (coppicing and pollarding of trees in riparian areas). Disturbances of the soft public infrastructure include: Local disaffection with national, regional, and local policies.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Resource Users)
Decreasing income levels with many areas suffering from significant poverty rates. Increasing average age of farmers and lack of recruitment of younger farmers. Marginalization of farming activity in society. Population exchange (out-migration of young people in search of income opportunities and in-migration of families and older people). Dual economic structure facilitated by the influx of wealthy outsiders driving economic conditions higher and making living less affordable for poorer native Cornish population. Impact of tourism activity on community structure and development.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Public Infrastructure Providers)
Neo-liberal policies advocating free market approaches to climate change and reduction in government social safety net. Small-holder farmers appear to have limited representation and input into policy decisions affecting farming activities. Dual economic structure facilitated by an influx of wealthy outsiders who seem to be influencing local politics to their advantage fostering the social and economic marginalization of the poorer native Cornish population.
Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Resource Users)
(none specified)Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Public Infrastructure Providers)
(none specified)INACTIVE-Coastal vulnerability to climate change in Cornwall
Resource System
Resource system (natural infrastructure): Terrestrial (including coastal and riparian) land, the watershed and topography (shared).
Resource Users
There are two main subgroups that are important in this case:
- A heterogeneous mix of urban and rural residents (approx. 532,000), including farmers, and second home owners from areas outside Cornwall.
- A significant number of tourists
Public Infrastructure Providers
Public infrastructure providers involved in coastal climate change adaptation include:
Elected government representatives:
- Local parish/town council (Boscastle/Wadebridge) members,
- Cornwall County council members, and
- Six members of parliament.
Government agencies:
- Dept. f. Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra);
- Environment Agency (EA); and
- South West Regional Flood and Coastal Committee;
- Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly Coastal Advisory Group
NGOs:
- National Trust
- Community Flood Forum
Others:
- Duchy of Cornwall (land owned by monarchy).
- First Great Western Railway (private operator of public railway)
- South West Water (a private monopoly).
Public Infrastructure
Hard public infrastructure includes roads, railways, bridges, and harbors.
Soft public infrastructure includes:
- Flood Water Management Act of 2010 (national);
- Range of national-level planning regulations;
- Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly Shoreline Management Plan (SMP);
- East Cornwall Catchment Flood Management Plan;
- West Cornwall Catchment Flood Management Plan;
- Cornwall Area of Outstanding Beauty (AONB) Plan;
- Estuary Management Plan; and
- River Catchment Plans.
Relationship 1
RU => R:
- Resource users extract land for a variety of competing purposes (urban land development, heritage sites, tourism, and biodiversity protection).
- In some communities, residents continue to provide traditional land/flood management knowledge (e.g., Boscastle).
- Other communities endure a generational knowledge gap of ecosystem conditions (e.g., Wadebridge).
- Tourists and residents engage in (non-consumptive) recreational and leisure activities.
R => RU (potential disservices/negative feedback):
- Residents endure losses from extreme flooding events (e.g., Boscastle).
Relationship 2
RU => PIP:
- Community members influenced by a lack of trust and strong relationship with representatives of key regional institutions.
- Regional policymakers perceived as ignoring community input and concerns.
- Residents participate in community flood forums and other public events and consultations sponsored by the Cornwall Community Resilience Network.
- Local population can participate in co-funding legislative flood defenses with local/parish council.
PIP => RU:
- Cornwall Council, Cornwall Community Flood Forum, and select communities establish the Cornwall Community Resilience Network which sponsors community flood forums.
Relationship 3
PIP => PI (soft):
- Short-term political cycle thinking of politicians constrains policy development and implementation.
- Local knowledge is not built into policy planning.
- Cornwall Community Resilience Network, and select communities build individual community flood plans.
- "Localism" policy thinking is leading to a trickle-down devolution of assets from the national government to Cornwall Council, to local parishes.
PIP => PI (hard):
- Government austerity measures constraining public infrastructure development leading to privatization of formerly public services (e.g., paying for public toilets) and lack of public transportation ("transport desert" in Bude).
Relationship 4
PI (hard) => R:
- Continued development in flood zones is altering the buffering capacity of coastal and riparian ecosystems during flooding and other severe weather events.
Relationship 5
PI (soft) => [R => RU]:
- Devolution of governance and lack of funding by federal government restricting climate mitigation/adaptation strategies at local level and may be promoting local vulnerability to severe climate change events.
PI (soft) => [RU => R]:
- Policies focused on second home owners and affordable housing goals enable new development in areas which may be prone to flooding (approx. 1,500 affordable housing units built).
- Ignoring Shoreline Management Plan is promoting the rebuilding of storm defenses instead of other options outlined in Management Plan.
PI (hard) => [R => RU]:
- Coastal management (hard PI) in some areas is promoting beach depletion (loss of sand) in other areas.
[RU => R] => PI (hard):
- Lack of affordable housing incentivizing development in areas more vulnerable to adverse weather events.
Relationship 6
RU => PI (soft):
- Community members disempowered and without local control due to top-down government actions.
PI (soft) => RU:
- Some communities are assessing levies on RU who are building in areas that may be prone to future flooding (e.g. Wadebridge).
PI (hard) => RU:
Second home ownership and related large number of empty homes during off-season is eroding social structure of communities (impacting community members well-being and sense of community).
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Resource System)
Exogenous natural resource system drivers:
- Increased precipitation.
- Increase in severe weather events, including severe flooding.
Exogenous social driver:
- Second home owners are driving new development in many areas that are prone to severe weather events.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Public Infrastructure)
Exogenous natural resource system driver on hard public infrastructure:
- Global climate change-induced extreme weather events are generating uncertainty with regard to the long-term viability of the human-built community (homes, historical buildings, roads, bridges, etc.).
Exogenous policy drivers on soft infrastructure:
- Lack of coordination and mismatch (divergent goals) of various laws dealing with coastal zone development at the regional and national level.
- Influence of EU Water Framework Directive on watershed management.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Resource Users)
Exogenous economic drivers:
- Decreasing income levels and significant poverty rates.
- Dual economic structure facilitated by the influx of wealthy outsiders driving economic conditions higher and making living less affordable for poorer native Cornish population.
- Loss of former sources of income (agriculture, mining, fisheries).
Exogenous social drivers:
- Population exchange (out-migration of young people in search of income opportunities and in-migration of families and older people).
- Impact of tourism activity on community structure and development.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Public Infrastructure Providers)
Exogenous economic drivers:
- Regional government focus on facilitating tourism as means for economic growth may be fostering socio-economic inequity and impairing climate change mitigation/adaptation strategies.
- National government austerity measures has cut one-third of Cornwall Council's budget
Exogenous political drivers:
- Policymakers sense of decision-making is related to responses to catastrophic events that garner much media attention, instead of proactively working to reduce vulnerability in all communities.
Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Resource Users)
(none specified)Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Public Infrastructure Providers)
(none specified)INACTIVE - Coastal village of Boscastle (North Cornwall)
Resource System
The resources consist of a heterogeneous mix of surface geology, hydrology, and human-built structures within which the rural coastal village of Boscastle is nested. These resources can be stationary (geological and engineered structures) or transient (ocean and river hydrology). The distribution of the resources is somewhat predictable (geology, human-built structures) and unpredictable (hydrology). The quantity of hydrological resources varies in space and time. The human-built resources are sensitive to changes in precipitation levels, degradation, and severe weather events. The surface and marine hydrology is susceptible to climate change. Flooding poses a major risk factor.
Resource Users
Heterogeneous mix of Boscastle residents (total population estimate as of 2011 was 641). [NOTE: Information for this system representation is taken from a 2014 study on community resilience that evaluated the perceptions of 70 rural residents with an average residence time in the community of 21 years. A majority of these residents shared a crisis event during a 2004 flooding.]
Public Infrastructure Providers
Public infrastructure providers involved in coastal climate change adaptation include elected government representatives: --Local parish/town council members, --Cornwall County council members, and --Minister of parliament. Government agencies: --Dept. f. Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra); --Environment Agency (EA); and --South West Regional Flood and Coastal Committee; --Department for Communities and Local Government; --Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly Coastal Advisory Group. Others: --National Trust (NGO); --Private insurance companies; --Gaia Trust (NGO); --South West Water (a private monopoly water provider).
Public Infrastructure
Hard public infrastructure includes roads, bridges, sewage and drain systems, energy creation and delivery systems, various flood abatement schemes (river dredging, canals, etc.). Soft public infrastructure includes: --Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly Shoreline Management Plan (SMP); --East Cornwall Catchment Flood Management Plan; --Cornwall Area of Outstanding Beauty (AONB) Plan; --Estuary Management Plan; and River Catchment Plans; --Planning Policy Statement 25 (PPS25); and --National Registry of Risk (national government).
Relationship 1
--Traditional land/flood management knowledge continues to exist within the community. --Effect of empty holiday homes on community structure. --Divide between commercialization of village and historic village identity.
Relationship 2
--Perception that government agencies are making efforts to inquire into local knowledge regarding traditional land/flood management practices, but then choose to ignore it/not apply the knowledge in their management plans. --Local representation is through Parish Council but due to the poor relationship/communication between Parish Council (which is perceived to be weak) and Cornwall County Council, community members feel cut-off from/unsupported by higher level governance structures. --Local Planning Policy 25 facilitates the building of new structures in flood plains, if the building is designed to withstand flooding (e.g., home build on top of garage).
Relationship 3
--Lack of policy realization (policies in place but not acted upon/implemented), e.g., land that should be given up continues to be inhabited. --Different coastal policies may have divergent goals (National Trust Trust and Cornwall County Council may differ in outcomes for human-built and natural infrastructures). --Influence of National Risk Register on funding for coastal defense policy implementation.
Relationship 4
Private property rights and building permits may negatively impact resource resilience and robustness (e.g. channeling of river Valency increases uncertainty of increased flooding events)
Relationship 5
--Private property rights and building permits may facilitate long-term uncertainty of negatively impact resource user resilience (e.g., building in flood zone increases uncertainty of damage and harm to private property, human livelihoods and well-being). --Geographic isolation of village (lack of access to public transportation, hospital, healthcare). --Reduction in fiscal resources leading to decrease in social services (education, ecumenical). --Continued insurance coverage provided to buildings in flood plain facilitating new development and human settlement in flood zones.
Relationship 6
--Respondents express a lack of trust and absence of strong relationship between their community and key regional institutions due to a perceived lack of interest of government officials in community concerns and the implementation of top-down actions without prior community consultation.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Resource System)
Global climate change-induced extreme weather events, such as severe flooding, sea level rise, and receding shorelines generating uncertainty with regard to the future prospects of human-built infrastructures, livelihoods, human lives, and ecosystem stability.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Public Infrastructure)
Hard/physical infrastructure: Global climate change-induced extreme weather events, such as severe flooding, sea level rise, and receding shorelines generating uncertainty with regard to the long-term viability of the human-built community (e.g., homes, historical buildings, roads, canals). Soft infrastructure (rules, regulations): Lack of coordination between a variety of laws at the regional and national level. Centralized of local governance structures to regional level is negating local decision-making authority.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Resource Users)
--Perception that "permanent leadership" within community is not important because there are "enough capable people in the community... and someone always steps up when needed." --Reliance on experience of 2004 flood as a guide to predict future community cohesion/resilience (viewing community as a static condition may be impairing the fostering of continued leadership skills). --Place attachment, perceived community cohesion, and social memory of effective local response to 2004 flood is equated to preparedness to live with future flood risk. --Extreme reliance on tourist revenues to generate community and individual income (resulting in low wages, lack of year-round employment opportunities, etc.). --Youth drain. --Perceived community fragmentation/divide between "old" and "new" residents. --Dual economic structure facilitated by an influx of outsiders which may be influencing community cohesion and leadership. --Feeling of empowerment to act and ability to effect change.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Public Infrastructure Providers)
--Policymakers influenced by "short-term political cycle" thinking instead of long-term climate change adaptation goals (dichotomy between stated goals of government policy and those implemented) --Regional government focus on facilitating tourism as means for economic growth may be fostering socio-economic inequity and impairing climate change mitigation/adaptation strategies. --Funding for coastal defenses is driven by community risk assessment evaluations through the National Risk Register (Boscastle was low on the list until the 2004 flooding).
Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Resource Users)
(none specified)Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Public Infrastructure Providers)
(none specified)INACTIVE - Market town of Wadebridge (North Cornwall)
Resource System
The resources consist of a heterogeneous mix of surface geology, hydrology, and human-built structures within which the market town of Wadebridge is nested. These resources can be stationary (geological and engineered structures) or transient (river hydrology). The distribution of the resources is somewhat predictable (geology, human-built structures) and unpredictable (hydrology). The quantity of hydrological resources varies in space and time. The human-built resources are sensitive to changes in precipitation levels, degradation, and severe weather events. The surface and marine hydrology is susceptible to climate change. Flooding poses a major risk factor.
Resource Users
Heterogeneous mix of Wadebridge residents (total population estimate as of 2011 was 6,600). [NOTE: Information for this system representation is taken from a 2014 study on community resilience that evaluated the perceptions of 100 town residents with an average residence time in the community of 20.5 years. These residents have not experienced a shared crisis event.]
Public Infrastructure Providers
Public infrastructure providers involved in coastal climate change adaptation include elected government representatives: --Local parish/town council members; --Cornwall County council members, and --Minister of parliament. Government agencies: Dept. f. Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra); Environment Agency (EA); South West Regional Flood and Coastal Committee; Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly Coastal Advisory Group. Others: --Gaia Trust (NGO); --Private insurance companies; --South West Water (a private monopoly); and --Chamber of Commerce.
Public Infrastructure
Hard public infrastructure includes roads, bridges, sewage and drain systems, energy creation and delivery systems, various flood abatement schemes (river dredging, canals, etc.). Soft public infrastructure includes: --Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly Shoreline Management Plan (SMP); --East Cornwall Catchment Flood Management Plan; --Cornwall Area of Outstanding Beauty (AONB) Plan; --Estuary Management Plan; and River Catchment Plans.
Relationship 1
--Perception that higher flood defenses are required to prevent a potential flooding event along the River Camel.
Relationship 2
--Local representation is through Parish Council but due to the poor relationship/communication between Parish Council (which is perceived to be weak) and Cornwall County Council, community members feel cut-off from/unsupported by higher level governance structures. --Regional policymakers are perceived to not engage with local knowledge. There is a desire to foster cross-scalar debates to better inform governance decision-making processes. --Cornwall Council is viewed as beholden to business interests which is not representative of local community interests and needs. --Centralized institutional power is perceived to stifle local community resilience. --Chamber of Commerce "missing" from community networks and decision-making processes with their support being viewed as vital to the community. --Loss of local power/lack of opportunity to voice local concerns. --Lack of government action to community requests. --Large gap between local decision-makers/leaders and community. --Government goals of energy efficiency and other environmental goals are viewed as unrealistic.
Relationship 3
--Lack of coordination between policy goals and policy implementation among government agencies. --Different coastal policies may have divergent goals (National Trust Trust and Cornwall County Council may differ in outcomes for human-built and natural infrastructures). --Implementation of Flood RE policy in 2014 due to agreement between government and insurance providers. Flood RE requires that the owners of new buildings built in flood zones must contribute £500 to a not-for-profit fund and acknowledge that they have to increase the flood defenses of their property by 2050 (diffusion of risk policy from government to private property owners).
Relationship 4
Private property rights and building permits may negatively impact resource resilience and robustness (e.g. channeling of river Camel could increase the uncertainty of increased flooding events)
Relationship 5
--Private property rights and building permits may facilitate long-term uncertainty and/or negatively impact resource user resilience (e.g., building in flood zone increases uncertainty of damage and harm to private property, human livelihoods and well-being). --Duty to dredge/clear river by government will impact river ecosystem and likelihood of future flooding events (may abate and/or push flood risk further downstream).
Relationship 6
--Respondents view the proliferation of charity shops which generate tax benefits to the owners but reduce available shop space as threatening to local businesses. --No public spaces or deliberate policy processes to generate and exchange ideas and to support community knowledge-building. --Centralized institutional decision-making processes are perceived to weaken community resilience. --Lack of trust in regional decision-makers. --Duty to dredge/clear river by government but unclear whether this is being implemented. --Diffusion of risk/vulnerability from government to private property owners through the implementation of Flood RE policy in 2014. The result of an agreement between government and insurance providers, Flood RE requires that the owners of new buildings built in flood zones must contribute £500 to a not-for-profit fund and acknowledge that they have to increase the flood defenses of their property by 2050.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Resource System)
Global climate change-induced extreme weather events, such as severe flooding and changes in river flows which is generating uncertainty with regard to the future prospects of human-built infrastructures, livelihoods, human lives, and ecosystem stability.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Public Infrastructure)
Hard/physical infrastructure: Global climate change-induced extreme weather events, such as severe flooding, is generating uncertainty with regard to the long-term viability of the human-built community (e.g., homes, historical buildings, roads, canals). Soft infrastructure (rules, regulations): Lack of coordination between a variety of laws at the regional and national level. Centralized of local governance structures to regional level is negating local decision-making authority.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Resource Users)
--Perceived wealth and interest gap between outsiders and locals. --Dual economic structure with a growing economic disparity between outsiders and locals. --Respondents feel empowered to act and that they have agency to affect change. --Community perception as self-reliant and unified.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Public Infrastructure Providers)
--Regional government focus on facilitating tourism as means for economic growth may be fostering socio-economic inequity and impairing climate change mitigation/adaptation strategies. --Private insurance companies lobby for laws that will limit exposure to pay outs for flood risk properties. --Wadebridge identified as a growth town by the Cornwall Council.
Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Resource Users)
(none specified)Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Public Infrastructure Providers)
(none specified)Brady U, Arizona State University.
. 2014. Assessing Community Resilience in North Cornwall: Local perceptions into responding to changing risk landscapes. Environment, Energy and Resilience, University of Exeter. Master of Research
. 2015. How to Review Case Studies - Quick Reference Guide.
. 2010. The coastal handbook: a guide for all those working on the coast.