- Resource System
- Terrestrial (including coastal and riparian) land, the river network and associated wetlands.
- Resource Units
- Urban/rural/agricultural spaces, freshwater, biodiversity
The Languedoc coastal zone is located in the delta region of the river Rhone bordering the Mediterranean Sea between Montpellier and the Petite Camargue in southern France. The study site also encompasses 20 km (~12.43 miles) of the inland area, including numerous communities of various sizes, the Lez and Vistre rivers, coastal lagoons and basins, and a mix of freshwater and brackish wetlands. The Languedoc study area is characterized by an action arena in which (1) rapid population growth is actively fostered by policymakers who facilitate the concomitant overappropriation of space and freshwater resources through unsustainable hard infrastructure development (e.g., interbasin water transfers, road and housing development in ecologically sensitive areas). (2) A reliance on the amenity industry and high unemployment in conjunction with an influx of affluent “equity refugees” heeding policymakers’ calls is leading to community fracturing and dual socio-economic structures. Finally, (3) potentially polycentric rule structures and local empowerment measures are undermined by government austerity measures and aggregation rules which is leading to confusion as to what rules apply when, lack of coordination between intercommunalities, and a blurring of responsibilities between citizens and public infrastructure providers.
This case study represents one of three coastal social-ecological systems (SESs) examined in collaboration with researchers in Britain, France, and South Africa as part of the Multi-Scale Adaptations to Climate Change and Social-Ecological Sustainability in Coastal Areas (MAGIC) research project funded by a Belmont grant. Information on the two other case studies, as well a comparative analysis of all three SESs can be found by following the "Related Studies and Models" link below.
INACTIVE - Contemporary inshore fisheries (as of 2014)
Resource System
The Languedoc-Roussillon coastal inshore fisheries resource consists of a heterogeneous mix of inshore marine and estuarine renewable resources, including stationary (e.g., oysters) and transient/migratory species (a variety of demersal and pelagic fish species, among them Sea bass, Sea bream, Hake, Mackerel, Bluefin tuna). Most of the commercial demersal and pelagic stocks are reportedly fully exploited. The distribution and quantity of the resources is highly unpredictable in space and time. The resource is sensitive to ocean currents, water temperature, salinity, pH levels, and a variety of other changes to the marine and estuarine ecosystems due, in part, to global climate change and pollution levels.
Resource Users
The dominant resource users consist of small-scale inshore fishermen operating a fleet of polyvalent vessels (<18m) within the 3-6 nautical mile coastal zone and/or within coastal lakes and lagoons. Inshore fishermen are spread out over various communities along the Languedoc-Roussillon coast. This group of appropriators appears to be fairly homogeneous, but levels of trust and social cohesion are likely to vary among individual fishing communities. Other resource users include semi-industrial and industrial fishermen, seafarmers producing oysters (Thau lagoon), local fishtraders, as well as residents/tourists engaging in a mix of consumptive and non-consumptive activities such as sports fishing, wind surfing, dolphin and whale-watching. There are indications of distrust and antagonism between small-scale fishermen and semi-/industrial fishermen, as well as recreational lagoon users (e.g., sports fishermen, windsurfers).
Public Infrastructure Providers
Public infrastructure providers include a variety of federal, regional and local agencies, as well as administrative bodies/joint agencies involved in fisheries management and regulation. Also includes public administrative and scientific institutions, such as Conservatoire du littoral and Ifremer. Fisheries management is hierarchical flowing from a national fisheries committee, to several regional and multiple local committees. Also includes Prud'homies which are ancient fishing guilds that have retained important administrative and management powers to license, regulate, and allocate fishing access to fishermen within their established territories. Prud'homies also serve enforcement and arbitration functions. Membership in a Prud'homie is mandatory for all Languedoc-Roussillon fishermen. NGOs involved in the Languedoc-Roussillon fisheries include the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and Bloom. (For a more detailed analysis of the public infrastructure providers, please see the Institutional Analysis).
Public Infrastructure
Hard public infrastructure includes harbors, ports, wharves, auction halls, breakwaters, groynes, artificial reefs, as well as roads, railways, and airports to transport products to market. Maps of Prud'homie fishing zones. Soft public infrastructure includes various international, national, regional, and local laws regulating and licensing fishing vessels, fishing gear, fishermen, fishing times and harvest limits, species' size restrictions. Also includes the Prud'homie laws and regulations, including the annual lottery process to allocate fishing access to territorial fishing grounds to individual fishermen. Although international and national legislation has increasingly challenged and neutralized the powers of Prud'homies, they remain an important element in fisheries management in the region. Conservation laws and regulations restricting access to certain marine protected areas and commercially targeted marine species include another element of the soft public infrastructure. Fishermen have access not ownership rights to fishing grounds. (For a more detailed analysis of the public infrastructure, please see the Institutional Analysis).
Relationship 1
The strategic interactions between resource users and the resource are facilitated by a variety of soft human and hard human-made infrastructures which are utilized to extract the resource. Soft infrastructure includes: the culture of individual fishing communities, fishermen's working knowledge of fishing grounds, and the social/political culture of the community facilitating the abidance of rules. Harvesting activities of the semi-industrial/industrial fishermen affecting the availability of inshore marine sources creating antagonism with artisanal fishermen. Culture of individual sports fishermen, residents, and tourists and their impacts on marine species such as sharks and cetaceans. Hard infrastructure includes: Polyvalent artisanal boats (petits metiers, <12m), fishing equipment (gill and trammel nets, hand line, long line, trap, octopus pots, seine, dredge, diving, capechades), bait, radios, sonar, buoys, hydraulic haulers, fathometers (to measure depths), pingers (to reduce cetacean bycatch).
Relationship 2
The strategic interactions between resource users and public infrastructure providers include: Government provides financial support for young/new fishermen and to re-train and re-outfit thonailleurs (banned small-scale tuna fishermen). Prud’homies consist of 4 Prud’hommes (individual fishermen) who are elected by and represent all the fishermen of the territory. Enforcement of fishing laws and regulations is through local Prud'homies which have the power to sanction offenders by imposing graduated fines or other types of sanctions. Appeals can be made to the Prud'homie via an arbitration process, however, legally Prud'homies are not considered the same status of a court or tribunal. The regulatory, legal, and disciplinary power of Prud'homies also does not extend to larger vessels, such as trawlers and seiners, fishing within their territorial waters. Allocation of access to fishing grounds in a Prud'homie is via an annual lottery process (which is separate from other licensing requirements) that operates under a right to work or earn a living ("droit de travail") scoring criteria in which eligible fishermen can draw the right to select fishing zones.
Relationship 3
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure providers and public infrastructure include: Decentralization of the regulatory authority for fisheries to the regional level with some delegation of authority to the fishing industry (under state supervision). Multiple layers of licensing requirements between a variety of governmental entities leads to confusion about authorized fishing activity. All of the above creates the potential for inconsistent/unfair rule application and enforcement of regulations, as well as lack of oversight. Allocation of fishing access licenses (outside of Prud'homies) is not necessarily transparent or equitable. Prud'hommes often are members of committees of marine fisheries and/or public officials (majors or town councils) with a personal investment in local politics which can lead to inequitable decision-making, nepotism, and other conflicts of interest/power struggles. Prud'homies have the option of aligning their regulations with regional committee rules/regulations and national law, or they can self-regulate independently - adding more layers of institutional complexity.
Relationship 4
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure and the resource include: Prud'homie access allocation process appears to inadequately consider the environmental sustainability of the resource extraction which could be detrimental to the protection of marine species/ecosystems. Fuel and fishing development subsidies are likely facilitating overexploitation of marine resources. Establishment of marine protected areas (lagoons and marine nature preserves) has the potential to aid in recovery of targeted marine species and increase marine biodiversity. Impact of artificial reefs on marine ecosystems and biodiversity.
Relationship 5
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure and the resource dynamics include: EU and national regulations limit the number of fishing vessels and their size and length. No TACS or quotas, except for Bluefin tuna - management of resource exploitation is through licensing only. Layers of licensing requirements at various governance levels and complexity of fisheries management creates the potential for confusion about authorized fishing activity which could facilitate overharvesting of resources. Prud'homies’ powers do not extend to larger vessels (trawlers, seiners, etc.) fishing within their territorial waters which may be enabling trawling within the 3-nautical-mile zone. EU policies may be facilitating the recovery of marine biodiversity. However, there is evidence that these policies are also creating wide-spread resentment by artisanal fishermen resulting in poaching (including the continued driftnet harvesting of Bluefin tuna by thonailleurs), illegal anchoring, and disputed occupation of protected areas.
Relationship 6
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure and the resource users include: Every fisherman must pay a fee and receive a "bon de prud'homie" (prud'homie license). In many cases, a fisherman must have a exploitation authorization and/or EU fishing license. Separate fishing licenses are required for every species targeted and fishing activity utilized. Fishing access licenses are not transferrable. Fishermen can sell their products at auction, to fish traders/processors, or directly to consumers. Prud'homies appear to successfully utilize social considerations in the allocation of fishing rights access to individual fishermen providing fishermen with good wages and equitable access to marine resources. Disaffection of small-scale fishermen with the effects of EU policies (e.g., CFP and Natura 2000) on French fisheries management.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Resource System)
Global climate change is anticipated to result in changes to sea water temperatures, intensity of ultraviolet radiation, and ocean acidification. These changes are likely already contributing to a redistribution of marine species and overall marine biodiversity loss. Foreign factory vessels and the national industrial/semi-industrial fishing fleets contribute to overexploitation of marine resources, including the loss of marine predator species. Industrial and agricultural pollution/run-off is affecting marine and estuarine ecosystems.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Public Infrastructure)
Climate change and associated increase in severe weather events (storms, flooding) is anticipated to cause extensive damage to hard public infrastructure, such as harbors, ports, wharves, groynes, breakwaters,roads, railways, etc. Soft public infrastructure disturbances include the current influence/effects of EU policies (EU Common Fishery Policy and Natura 2000) on French fisheries management, and the uncertainty surrounding the ongoing reform of the EU Common Fishery Policy.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Resource Users)
Divergent interests and influence of commercial versus small-scale fishermen. Impact of marine protected areas/estuaries and partial infill of lagoons for urban development on small-scale inshore fishermen. High rate of population growth through migration. Dual economies - influx of wealthy urbanites in search of Mediterranean lifestyle driving up prices and making living less affordable for locals.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Public Infrastructure Providers)
Neo-liberal policies advocating free market approaches to climate change influencing a tendency to switch from "command-and-control" capacity management policies toward market-based instruments. Influence of global institutions in reducing the authority of Prud'homies. Potential for outside big-money influence on individual Prud'hommes.
Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Resource Users)
(none specified)Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Public Infrastructure Providers)
(none specified)INACTIVE - Agriculture (as of 2014)
Resource System
The Languedoc-Roussillon agricultural/terrestrial resources consist of a heterogeneous mix of terrestrial and agricultural renewable and non-renewable resources, including soils, woodlands, rivers/streams, riparian habitats, including a variety of stationary floral (native and agricultural plants) and non-stationary faunal species (native species and livestock). The resources are the product of biophysical constraints and centuries of human manipulation/craftsmanship. Their distribution and quantity is somewhat unpredictable and can vary in space and time. The resource is sensitive to changes in temperature, precipitation, saltwater intrusion, and extreme weather events (flooding, drought, storms, sea level rise, etc.) which can be magnified by global climate change and pollution levels.
Resource Users
The resource users are a heterogeneous mix of viticulturists (vignerons) and farmers engaged in traditional and organic agricultural production (wine, fruits and vegetables) at small-scale and industrial levels. Migrant farmworkers (some of which are in the country illegally). Levels of trust and social cohesion vary among rural communities and may be influenced by traditional rules and norms, as well as societal (traditional v. néo-ruraux farmers/vignerons) and ethnic and racial tensions (French locals v. foreign migrants). Other resource users include retirees/holiday home owners, young unemployed urban dwellers seeking refuge in chestnut and holm-oak rural forests. Tourists (non-consumptive (sightseeing, hiking, etc.) and consumptive uses (angling, hunting, etc.).
Public Infrastructure Providers
Public infrastructure providers include a variety of federal and regional/local agencies that provide funding and implement rules and regulations, including the Defense and Management Organisation” (DMO - formerly the Wine Syndicate) which controls, manages and certifies wine growers under a PDO (Protected Designation of Origin) or PGI (Protected Geographical Indications) label. Also includes conservation agencies, such as the Federation des Parcs Naturels Regionaux and Conservatoire d'espaces naturels Languedoc Roussillon, and the European Forum on Nature Conservation and Pastoralism. Monitoring and sanctioning is conducted by various agencies (?) Vignerons and farmers are represented by a variety of cooperatives at varying governance levels, as well as at least three national farmers' unions, and the National Federation of CIVAM (FNCIVAM) - a farming network. (For a more detailed analysis of the public infrastructure providers, please see the Institutional Analysis).
Public Infrastructure
Hard public infrastructure includes roads and railways to transport farming/dairy/livestock products to market, energy and water delivery systems, including dams and the Bas-Rhone canal system, dikes/pumps and other agricultural water diversion infrastructures. Also includes public produce markets, parks and nature areas designed for recreational and tourism purposes. Soft public infrastructure includes various national, regional, and local laws regulating and licensing farms, livestock, farming practices (organic and traditional), including PDO/PGI designation which is modeled after the EU CAP reform and other EU legislation. Also includes institutions created by the historical wine cooperative system, as well as conservation laws and regulations restricting access to sensitive native habitat and providing endangered species protections. Farmers/vignerons can have leasing or ownership rights to their lands. (For a more detailed analysis of the public infrastructure, please see the Institutional Analysis).
Relationship 1
Resource users employ a variety of soft human and hard human-made infrastructures to extract products from terrestrial resources. Soft infrastructure includes agricultural knowledge (often passed down through generations), including farming culture and social norms, diverse farming strategies (traditional and organic, small-scale and industrial), and technology (bulldozing wine terraces instead of building them with stone, chemical/fertilizer use). In particular, the equation of a healthy ecosystem with agriculturally-produced landscapes by traditional farmers/vignerons may be preventing the implementation of soil erosion mitigation/climate change adaptation measures, since friche (fallow land) carries a negative social connotation yet may be crucial to such measures. Viticulture traditions have also cultivated climatic niche grape varieties which are more susceptible to climate change. Hard infrastructure includes agricultural equipment, farm vehicles, irrigation systems, environmental waste storage facilities, rural septic tanks, fertilizers and pesticides.
Relationship 2
The strategic interactions between resource users and public infrastructure providers include: Planning permissions and licensing requirements for farm lands/vineyards, farming equipment, livestock raising/movement, and farm waste. Monitoring for compliance is conducted by the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Forestry and/or the Regional Prefet, and/or ADEME (French Environment and Energy Management Agency(?) French farming subsidies are paid to industrial farming corporations (not smallholder farmers). Small-scale farmers'/vignerons' interests not adequately represented by cooperatives.
Relationship 3
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure providers and public infrastructure include: Hard public infrastructure is impacted by agricultural land development and/or abandonment, as well as water extraction levels, all of which can serve to increase or decrease the impacts of global climate change. Soft public infrastructure is affected by: Enactment of conservation policies to increase biodiversity and mitigate the effects of severe weather events. European CAP funding/aid policies linked to environmental compliance measures for farmers/vignerons. Reduction in number of cooperatives (between 2004-2010, 40% of wine cooperatives disappeared) due to mergers and crowding out of small cooperatives leading to lop-sided representation of industrial versus small-scale farming interests in policy arena.
Relationship 4
Influence of EU "grubbing up" subsidies have led to the reduction of 15,882 hectares of vineyards which were uprooted and returned to garrigue state from 2008 to 2011. EU policies' influence on irrigation practices and pesticide use may have beneficial effect on water and soil conditions.
Relationship 5
Flood risk management policies involving floodplain restoration and/or the creation of retention areas may negatively impact agricultural areas, including crop and livestock product losses/yield reduction, livestock injuries and fatalities, soil erosion, property and infrastructure (roads, paths, etc.) damage. EU agricultural "efficiency" policies may lead to the industrialization of agriculture and viticulture due to the pressure of international competitiveness requirements. This industrialization, in turn, may facilitate greater environmental degradation (soil erosion, runoff pollution due to increased pesticide and herbicide application). Agricultural water tariffs have the potential to facilitate water usage conservation measures.
Relationship 6
Wine growers and traders must comply with the specifications of the DMO in order to receive PDO or PGI certification. Farmers/vignerons must pay agricultural water tariffs (fixed per hectar plus additional volumetric charge based on usage). Small-scale vignerons disproportionately affected by EU policies, including rising cost of production (e.g., gasoline, mandatory technological improvements) and falling wine prices.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Resource System)
Global climate change is anticipated to lead to a progressive warming of the inland area which is dominated by agricultural and viticultural activities. Sea level rise may negatively impact agricultural land in coastal floodplains. Anticipated changes in precipitation levels are expected to increase existing freshwater resource deficits and fire hazards. Vineyard weed control practices are creating significant herbicide pollution of surface water resources.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Public Infrastructure)
EU Common Agricultural Policy mandating CAPs on wine production and the streamlining of agricultural processes which appears to be undermining the bonds of trust within traditional viticultural regimes. Disaffection and rioting of small-scale vignerons affecting hard and soft public infrastructure.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Resource Users)
Decreasing income levels with many areas suffering from significant poverty rates. Large influx of migrant workers of different racial and ethnic heritage. Influence of wealthy urbanites/retirees from northern parts of the country and Europe on socio-economic conditions in rural areas (e.g., fencing off properties and locking gates barring communal access to lands; creating a dual economic structure by driving up market prices for goods and services further exacerbating rural poverty). Increasing average age of farmers and lack of recruitment of younger farmers. Increasing demand for organic produce (EU and within France). Impact of tourism activity on community structure and development.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Public Infrastructure Providers)
Supranational public infrastructure providers, such as the EU and the OECD, which influence French PIPs at various levels of governance, such as through the Common Market Organization (Wine CMO) and the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) reforms (funding/aid policies). Influence of trade globalization, changes in consumption patterns (wine), international trade competition, and global market-based neo-liberal laissez-faire governance schemes.
Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Resource Users)
(none specified)Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Public Infrastructure Providers)
(none specified)INACTIVE - Urban/rural settlements (as of 2014)
Resource System
The Languedoc Roussillon urban/rural settlements resources consist of a heterogeneous mix of surface geology, hydrology, floral and faunal resources within which individual human-built environments are nested. These resources can be stationary (geological and floral) or transient (hydrology and faunal). Considering climate change, some resources can also be trasient through time and space (e.g. faunal migration and transformation of the floral natural habitats). The distribution of the resources is somewhat predictable (geology, hydrology) and unpredictable (floral, faunal). The quantity of hydrological, floral, and faunal resources varies in space and time. The resources are sensitive to changes in temperature, precipitation levels, degradation, and pollution.
Resource Users
--The resource users are a heterogeneous mix of urban and rural residents, including wealthy retirees and second home owners from northern parts of France and Europe. Also includes migrants from Africa and other European nations (some of which are in the country illegally), who illegally occupy urban peripheries contributing to urban sprawl. --Tourists. Levels of trust and social cohesion vary by community.
Public Infrastructure Providers
Public infrastructure providers include a variety of federal and regional/local level agencies which provide funding and implement rules and regulations, including the Ministry of Ecology, Energy, Sustainable Development and the Sea, the Interministry Taskforce on Coastal Development and the French Coastal Conservation Agency. Also includes public consultative bodies (National Coastal and Ocean Council), as well as private contractors. Monitoring and sanctioning is conducted by a mix of national, regional, and local government agencies, as well as the French court system. (For a more detailed analysis of the public infrastructure providers, please see the Institutional Analysis).
Public Infrastructure
Hard public infrastructure includes roads, railways, bridges, sewage and drain systems, energy creation and delivery systems, various flood abatement schemes and defense works, such as artificial reefs, groynes, and breakwaters. Soft public infrastructure includes: Laws, policies, and regulations pertaining to the framework for a new maritime policy and integrated coastal zone management plan, including environmental Grenelle laws and marine spatial planning policies (many of which are influenced by EU mandates and policies). The national maritime/coastal development policy serves as an overall framework (including funding) for the development of regional coastal zone management strategies. Also includes conservation laws and regulations restricting access to sensitive native habitat and providing endangered species protections, including the Marine Protected Areas Strategy and Natura 2000. (For a more detailed analysis of the public infrastructure, please see the Institutional Analysis).
Relationship 1
The resource users employ a variety of soft human and hard human-made infrastructures to extract and/or benefit from the resources. Hard human-made infrastructures include plumbing and energy delivery systems, roads and railways to obtain food resources. Soft human infrastructures include social and cultural norms within communities which affect habits and related resource usage (e.g., level of consumerism), knowledge of community and place within the ecosystem (e.g., likelihood of resource users to live in a property that is subject to flooding), education, and socio-economic position in society.
Relationship 2
The strategic interactions between resource users and public infrastructure providers include: Monitoring (ineffective) for compliance with environmental management standards for protecting habitats and wildlife, managing soil and water, controlling household chemical and water use.
Relationship 3
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure providers and public infrastructure include: Lack of inclusion of local population in conservation measures is leading to policies that do not consider the input of and/or have the support of locals leading to antagonism (e.g., between fishermen and conservationists). Infill of coastal lagoons for urban development could be detrimental to fisheries and climate change mitigation/adaptation strategies.
Relationship 4
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure and the resource include: Conservation policies somewhat effective in improving natural habitat and local biodiversity/ecosystem resilience in certain areas. Artifical reefs may be creating valuable habitat/nurseries for marine species and increasing coastal buffer zone.
Relationship 5
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure and resource dynamics include: Positioning of defense works (groynes and breakwaters) along the sandy shoreline with a concentration around urban areas and tourist locations may be entrapping longshore sediment drift increasing risk of exposure to these areas. Hard infrastructure (dikes, channeling of the river Rhone) is preventing the creation of natural buffer zones against climate change mandating hard choices - either a continuation of increasingly costly hard engineering defenses or abandonment of certain coastal regions to the sea. Urban coastal development plans in the 1960s focused on the creation of coastal tourist resorts largely disregarding coastal risks in planning activity. These past development strategies combined with regional geomorphology are placing contemporary human coastal developments at greater present and future risk of marine inundation.
Relationship 6
The strategic interactions between public infrastructure and resource users include: Planning permissions and licensing requirements for rural and urban development - ineffective with regard to illegal "cabanisation" (hut-building) that is taking place in areas between seaside resorts and coastal lagoons. Focus on tourism as source of economic well-being has led to development policies that have the potential to hinder effective mitigation and adaptation strategies to climate change. Moreover, many development and conservation policies are designed with tourism in mind and may not have the full support of the local population.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Resource System)
Observed shoreline retreat with poor protection of inland areas due to low-lying coastlines. Anticipated sea level rise and precipitations intensity and frequency with increased risks of extreme flooding events. Increased frequency and intensity of storms and modification of tidal and wave regimes due to global climate change. Anticipated temperature increases and variation in groundwater levels likely to magnify coastal erosion and associated increase in wave energy.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Public Infrastructure)
Influence of EU policies on coastal development schemes. Climate change induced spread of Tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus) and associated public health risk influencing public policy re prevention and eradication programs.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Resource Users)
Dual economic structure with rising inequity and poverty rates, high level of unemployement. Large influx of migrant workers of different racial and ethnic heritage. Influence of wealthy urbanites/retirees from northern parts of the country and Europe on socio-economic conditions driving up property prices and general cost of living for locals. Impact of tourism activity on community structure and development. Public health impact of climate change induced spread of Tiger mosquitoes (Aedes albopictus) and associated risk of contracting Dengue fever and Chikungunya virus.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Public Infrastructure Providers)
Supranational public infrastructure providers, such as the EU and the OECD, which influence French PIPs at various levels of governance, such as through the ICZM. Influence of trade globalization, changes in consumption patterns, tourism, international trade competition, and global market-based neo-liberal laissez-faire governance schemes. At the national scale, reduction of financial means for local authorities, context of budgetary crisis (austerity measures)
Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Resource Users)
(none specified)Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Public Infrastructure Providers)
(none specified)Urban/rural adaptability to global climate change
Resource System
Resource system (natural infrastructure):
- Terrestrial (including coastal and riparian) landscapes; associated watersheds and topography (shared).
Resource units:
- Affordances flowing from urban, rural, agricultural spaces, freshwater sources, and ecosystem biodiversity
Resource Users
There are three main subgroups that are important in this case:
- A heterogeneous mix of urban and rural residents, including farmers, viticulturists, as well as retirees and second home owners from areas outside the Languedoc region.
- Migrants from Africa and other European nations.
- A significant number of tourists.
Public Infrastructure Providers
Government entities (constitutional level):
- French Ministry of Environment and its regional offices (Directions Régionales de l'Environnement, de l'Aménagement et du Logement) (national and regional).
- Interministerial Delegation for Spatial Planning and Regional Attractivity (DATAR)
Government entities (collective choice level):
- River Basin committee and coordinating préfet coordonnateur de bassin.
- Mayor (local/municipal) (intercommunitality/metropolitan)
Operating authorities:
- Public mosquito control agency (EID)
Public entities:
- Réseau Ferré de France (RFF) (national railway)
- Electricité Réseau Distribution France (ERDF) (electrical/energy)
Public/private entities (producer):
- Groupe BRL (contractor building Aqua Domitia project)
Private entities:
- Insurance companies
Public Infrastructure
Hard public infrastructure:
- Utilities infrastructure (electricity, gas, water delivery);
- Public transportation (bus and rail)—currently dominated by high speed rail project;
- Roads (national and county)—currently dominated by A9 freeway construction project;
- Aqua Domitia project: a water development canal to bring more potable water to the region through an inter-basin water transfer; and
- Coastal defense systems (dikes, breakwaters, and groyne restoration projects).
Soft Public Infrastructure:
Watershed management:
- French Water Act (national)
- River Basin Management Plans, called SDAGE (Schéma Directeur d'Aménagement et de Gestion des Eaux)
- Schémas d'Aménagement et de Gestion des Eaux (SAGE) for Rhône Mediterranée district
Coastal zone development management:
- Solidarité et Renouvellements Urbains (urban development law) (national)
- Scheme of Territorial Coherence (SCoT) (intercommunality level – metropolitan level)
Other:
- Mosquito control policy
Relationship 1
RU => R:
- Resource users consume land for urban development and large infrastructure projects (e.g., A9 freeway and high speed rail).
- Ecologically sensitive areas are transformed for urban, agricultural, and large infrastructure project development.
- Over-pumping of scarce surface and groundwater for irrigation and increased human consumption is potentially transforming groundwater supplies due to saltwater intrusion.
R => RU (potential disservices/negative feedback):
- Residents endure losses from extreme flooding events.
- Residents suffer from mosquito nuisances.
- Residents endure public health risks (vector-borne diseases transmitted by Tiger mosquitos)
Relationship 2
RU => PIP and PIP => RU:
- Government restructuring in 2015 (taking effect in 2016) is leading to negotiation processes and power struggles between citizens and elected officials (blurring of the distinction between resource user/citizen and local public infrastructure provider).
- Lack of aggregation rules is creating confusion as to who has decision-making authority and under what circumstances.
RU => PIP:
- Citizens participate in “debat public” (public hearing process)
- Citizens petition and lobby government for better public infrastructure and services (French culture of lobbying and protest)
- The Bourgeois Boheme (Bobos) petition government based on value issues (environmental protection, etc.)
PIP => RU:
- Regional government and Montpellier city officials are actively influencing outsiders to relocate to the area.
- Local politicians attempt to influence the political process with promises of tax cuts and land use zoning changes
- Public infrastructure providers monitor farmers and viticulturists for compliance with environmental standards (e.g., water withdrawals).
- Public infrastructure providers monitor urban areas for standing water (mosquito breeding grounds).
Relationship 3
PIP => PI (hard human-made):
- Forward-looking PIPs are producing hard human-made PI projects beyond the immediate expectations and needs of citizens (e.g., contracting out to BRL for an extension of the aqua domitia project to expand water availability beyond current needs, A9 road and high speed rail development).
PIP => PI (soft infrastructure):
- Lawmaking and implementation of existing rules is constrained by government austerity measures and EU influence.
- Implementation of SCOT and watershed management plans at intercommunality level constrained by lack of coordination between intercommunalities.
PI (hard human-made) => PIP:
- No known influence.
PI (soft infrastructure) => PIP:
- Land use zoning via the Plan of Land Use (PLU) at the city level not influenced or guided by SCOT.
- PLU at the intercommunality level (metropolitan) influenced by SCOT.
- PLU at intercommunality level is constrained by SCOT, but since SCOT is a framework policy and its guidance/direction is often ambiguous, it leaves room for interpretation which makes monitoring compliance and implementation difficult.
- SCOT rules provide a framework that holds city/town mayors legally liable for the deaths of any residents due to SCOT implementation failures.
Relationship 4
PI (hard) => R:
- Aqua Domitia project will transform Rhone water availability and affect riparian areas through inter-basin water transfer.
- Big infrastructure projects (e.g., A9 freeway) erode natural habitat and ecological connectivity, thereby affecting biodiversity.
- Dune restoration/re-vegetation enhancing dune resilience and sand-trapping capability.
Relationship 5
PI (soft) => [RU => R]:
- New Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is restricting agricultural land development.
- Urbanization policies (including land swaps and compensation projects) are enabling development of natural habitat and agricultural land resulting in biodiversity losses and reduced agricultural output (e.g., building high speed rail line though the habitat of an endangered bird).
- Plan of Land Use (PLU) governing land use zoning may also enable development in ecologically sensitive areas.
- Public awareness campaigns (e.g., mosquito control management) promote better (standing) water management.
PI (hard) => [RU => R]:
- Hard public infrastructure (high speed rail and new A9 freeway) and local/regional development policies enabling greater urbanization and urban sprawl.
- Aqua Domitia project may enable further population growth.
- Expensive sand supply policies enable (1) continued tourist desire for beach vacation; and (2) short-term increase in coastal buffer zone, but have limited long-term effects on coastal erosion.
- Territorial coherence scheme (SCOT) is promoting policies that include urban housing and urban mobility programs that enable further population growth and urban sprawl.
Relationship 6
PI (soft) => RU:
- Government restructuring (2015/2016) and decentralization measures intended to empower individual responsibility
- Urban development policies are enhancing vulnerability to tropical disease among population.
- Compensation policies for converting agricultural and natural habitat to urban development is eroding social relations.
- "Debat public" shapes expectations of a participatory process among citizens.
- Shoreline setback policies eroding social relations.
- Sand supply policies shaping tourist expectations of sandy beach vacation.
RU => PI (soft):
- French culture of lobbying and protest can escalate when citizen feel their voices aren't being heard potentially forcing change in rules.
- Despite government’s intent to empower local residents, citizens’ expectations are shaped by past state action and state responsibility leading to inertia and lack of willingness of local population to be take on roles previously filled by the government.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Resource System)
- Observed shoreline retreat with poor protection of inland areas due to low-lying coastlines.
- Climate-change induced risk of drought and exposure to other climatic hazards, such as sea level rise and intensity and frequency of precipitation (increased vulnerability to extreme flooding events).
- Higher average temperatures: (1) are facilitating the spread of Tiger mosquitoes and other vector-borne diseases; and (2) may potentially impact viticulture.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Public Infrastructure)
Exogenous political and economic drivers on hard infrastructure:
- National and EU political and economic considerations influencing the development of the transnational A-9 freeway to address France-Spain cross-border traffic issues.
Exogenous natural resource system drivers on soft infrastructure:
- Storm Cynthia provided impetus for the development of SCOT policy.
- Climate change-induced spread of mosquitos influencing public policy re: prevention and eradication programs.
Exogenous natural resource system driver on hard infrastructure:
- Global climate change-induced extreme weather events, such as severe flooding, is generating uncertainty with regard to the long-term viability of the human-built community (e.g., homes, historical buildings, roads, bridges, etc.).
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Resource Users)
Exogenous social drivers:
- Social and economic crises.
- Population growth due to in-migration.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Public Infrastructure Providers)
Metaconstitutional level:
- European Union (EU) Commission on the Implementation of the Water Framework Directive (international) (France is a Contracting Party).
- EU Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Directive (international) (France is a Contracting Party).
Constitutional level:
- Government restructuring in 2015 (taking effect in 2016) is leading to negotiation processes and power struggles between elected officials at the collective choice (local) and constitutional (regional/national) level.
Exogenous social and political drivers:
- General trend towards decentralization leading to massive government restructuring in 2015/2016.
- Social and economic crises.
- National government austerity measures and related budget restrictions.
Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Resource Users)
(none specified)Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Public Infrastructure Providers)
(none specified)Brady U, Arizona State University.
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