- Resource System
- Tropical coastal marine ecosystem.
- Resource Units
- endangered green turtles (Chelonia mydas).
The artisanal green turtle fishery is operated by the indigenous Miskito along Nicaragua's eastern (Caribbean) coast between the city of Bluefields in the south and Puerto Cabezas in the north. The original case study focused on the village of Tasbapauni which is located approximately 40 miles north of the capital Bluefields on a narrow beach separating Pearl Lagoon from the ocean. The initial report covers a time period from approximately 1968 to 1969, as well as part of 1971, and catalogues an action situation involving 106 turtle fishermen, of which 80 turtled exclusively. Lack of employment opportunities and high endogenous and exogenous (international) demand for green turtles facilitated overexploitation of the species. The resource system (natural infrastructure) is the tropical coastal marine ecosystem, including seagrass beds, shoals, turtle banks (shared), and endangered green turtles (common pool).
This case study is part of the original Common-Pool Resource (CPR) database. A summary of the original CPR coding conducted in the 1980s by Edella Schlager and Shui Yan Tang at Indiana University may be found under the CPR tab in the Institutional Analysis section below.
An update conducted in 2015 examines a time period from 1991 to 2011, and an action situation in which an unknown number of Miskito turtle fishers from several communities along the Nicaraguan Atlantic coast operate a quasi-legal commercial fishery under a domestic subsistence use exception to green turtle protections. Rules limiting green turtle harvesting exist at various government levels but are unenforced. Lack of alternative employment opportunities, as well as endogenous and exogenous (domestic) demand for green turtles, continue to facilitate overexploitation of this endangered species.
The resource appropriated from Miskito Turtle Fishery is turtles. The turtle grounds extend 20 miles north, and 12 miles south of Tasbapauni, and 24 miles out into the Atlantic. The grounds include about 20 banks where turtles feed, 50 shoals where turtles sleep, and several cays where fishermen can camp. The boundary includes several physical elements, primarily banks and shoals, but the boundary is also defined by the extent the fishers can travel.
RESOURCE:
The resource appropriated from Miskito Turtle Fishery is turtles. The turtle grounds extend 20 miles north, and 12 miles south of Tasbapauni, and 24 miles out into the Atlantic. The grounds include about 20 banks where turtles feed, 50 shoals where turtles sleep, and several cays where fishermen can camp. The boundary includes several physical elements, primarily banks and shoals, but the boundary is also defined by the extent the fishers can travel.
SCREENER:
Case: Miskito Turtle Fishery, Nicaragua
The information regarding the following common-pool resource system was taken from empirical evidence from a field setting. Data on the system was extracted from a book. Currently, there are no additional documents to cite which may provide further information about this common-pool resource.
These documents describe one resource in detail. The primary resource is the Miskito Turtle Fishery, situated in Tasbapauni of Nicaragua. More generally, it is located in Central America & Caribbean. The system's sector is that of fisheries. Relatively good information has been collected about the stakes of participants who appropriate from Miskito Turtle Fishery. The condition of this resource is well understood. Complete information is available regarding the strategies used by key groups interacting with the system. There is thorough documentation of the operational rules for this resource. This is the result of a high level of confidence that the authors who recorded the features of Miskito Turtle Fishery have a complete knowledge of its particulars. Furthermore, the authors have provided sufficient data to formulate a structured coding process.
There are 51-100 total appropriator teams appropriating from the resource . At the beginning of the period discussed by the authors, there was a moderately abundant supply of biological and physical resources withdrawn compared to the number of units available. Appropriator teams for the resource are sometimes formally organized.
The Miskito once could secure adequate nutrition and raw materials from their environment by day-to-day shifts (change of focus) between fishing, hunting/gathering, and gardening. They balanced shortages and surpluses by taking advantage of diverse resources in different ecosystems, and via the socially-dictated practice of sharing. The most sought-after food was turtles; extra meat (beyond that reserved for catchers' families) was given to kin or friends (or sold, but only locally). "Turtlemen" worked in teams of two to find and harpoon turtles; beyond the two-man crew the fishery was not organized [operational rules only]. The community shifted from land to water resources and back in response to environmental conditions, not human rules. Falling turtle populations, rising human populations, growing market demand for turtle products, and incorporation of the Miskito into the cash economy have led to over-reliance by the Miskito on increasingly scarce turtles. More meat to market means less to share, resulting in less protein available, disrupted social strategies, and the turtle CPR in distress.
CITATION(S):
Nietschmann, Bernard (1972) "Hunting and Fishing Focus Among the Miskito Indians, Eastern Nicaragua." HUMAN ECOLOGY 1(1): 41-67.*
Nietschmann, Bernard (1973) BETWEEN LAND AND WATER: THE SUBSISTENCE ECOLOGY OF THE MISKITO INDIANS, EASTERN NICARAGUA. New York: Seminar Press. [G-M F1529 .M9 N67]
The resource appropriated from Miskito Turtle Fishery is turtles. The turtle grounds extend 20 miles north, and 12 miles south of Tasbapauni, and 24 miles out into the Atlantic. The grounds include about 20 banks where turtles feed, 50 shoals where turtles sleep, and several cays where fishermen can camp. The boundary includes several physical elements, primarily banks and shoals, but the boundary is also defined by the extent the fishers can travel.
SCREENER:
Case: Miskito Turtle Fishery, Nicaragua
The information regarding the following common-pool resource system was taken from empirical evidence from a field setting. Data on the system was extracted from a book. Currently, there are no additional documents to cite which may provide further information about this common-pool resource.
These documents describe one resource in detail. The primary resource is the Miskito Turtle Fishery, situated in Tasbapauni of Nicaragua. More generally, it is located in Central America & Caribbean. The system's sector is that of fisheries. Relatively good information has been collected about the stakes of participants who appropriate from Miskito Turtle Fishery. The condition of this resource is well understood. Complete information is available regarding the strategies used by key groups interacting with the system. There is thorough documentation of the operational rules for this resource. This is the result of a high level of confidence that the authors who recorded the features of Miskito Turtle Fishery have a complete knowledge of its particulars. Furthermore, the authors have provided sufficient data to formulate a structured coding process.
There are 51-100 total appropriator teams appropriating from the resource . At the beginning of the period discussed by the authors, there was a moderately abundant supply of biological and physical resources withdrawn compared to the number of units available. Appropriator teams for the resource are sometimes formally organized.
The Miskito once could secure adequate nutrition and raw materials from their environment by day-to-day shifts (change of focus) between fishing, hunting/gathering, and gardening. They balanced shortages and surpluses by taking advantage of diverse resources in different ecosystems, and via the socially-dictated practice of sharing. The most sought-after food was turtles; extra meat (beyond that reserved for catchers' families) was given to kin or friends (or sold, but only locally). "Turtlemen" worked in teams of two to find and harpoon turtles; beyond the two-man crew the fishery was not organized [operational rules only]. The community shifted from land to water resources and back in response to environmental conditions, not human rules. Falling turtle populations, rising human populations, growing market demand for turtle products, and incorporation of the Miskito into the cash economy have led to over-reliance by the Miskito on increasingly scarce turtles. More meat to market means less to share, resulting in less protein available, disrupted social strategies, and the turtle CPR in distress.
CITATION(S):
Nietschmann, Bernard (1972) "Hunting and Fishing Focus Among the Miskito Indians, Eastern Nicaragua." HUMAN ECOLOGY 1(1): 41-67.*
Nietschmann, Bernard (1973) BETWEEN LAND AND WATER: THE SUBSISTENCE ECOLOGY OF THE MISKITO INDIANS, EASTERN NICARAGUA. New York: Seminar Press. [G-M F1529 .M9 N67]
RESOURCE INFO:
The resource appropriated from Miskito Turtle Fishery is turtles. It is produced biologically and is a renewable moving (fugitive) unit. The turtle grounds extend 20 miles north, and 12 miles south of Tasbapauni, and 24 miles out into the Atlantic. The grounds include about 20 banks where turtles feed, 50 shoals where turtles sleep, and several cays where fishermen can camp. The boundary includes several physical elements, primarily banks and shoals, but the boundary is also defined by the extent the fishers can travel.
The boundary of this resource has natural/constructed and institutional arrangements which do not limit entry. The boundaries of this resource are smaller than the location, and exist in one country, and are not divided among multiple general purpose local jurisdictions at a single level. The boundaries of this resource are independent of a development project designed by non-residents.
There are distinct and stable micro-environmental or ecological zones within this resource (highly confident). The quality and/or quantity of units is regularly better in some of the zones than in others (highly confident). The variance in quality between the zones has at some point in time created conflict among appropriators.
There are natural barriers within the resource, and they coincide with microzones (highly confident). There are not strategic points within the resource where the main flow of the turtles can be controlled (highly confident). There is considerable, and predictable variation over space in the availability of turtles within the resource (highly confident). There is considerable, and predictable variation in the flow of turtles within a single year (highly confident). There is not considerable variation in the flow of turtles from year to year (inferred).
The bottom topography of Miskito Turtle Fishery is not indicated in the case study information.
If no rules in use were being followed, the relationship among the appropriation processes would have little adverse effects (inferred).
The boundaries of the production resource are totally seperated from the boundaries of the appropriation resource (highly confident). The boundaries of the production resource are totally seperated from the boundaries of the location (highly confident). The boundaries of the distribution resource and the boundaries of the appropriation resource overlap partially, but they are not equivalent (highly confident). The boundaries of the production resource and the boundaries of the distribution resource overlap paritally, but they are not equivalent (highly confident).
LOCATION:
The appropriation resources are situated on the eastern coast of Nicaragua, in the village of Tasbapauni and its turtling grounds. The boundaries of the location are primarily institutionally defined with the village, and the turtling grounds are both naturally and institutionally defined. The extent of the grounds is based on traditional usage of certain cays, reefs, and islands. The appropriation resource present in this location consists of turtles (coding), as well as shrimp, and wild animals. Regarding the use of the irrigation system, there were sometimes few adverse effects, and sometimes conflictual effects in the relationships among appropriation processes.
The system is located within one country. Within this country, the system's location is not divided among several general purpose local jurisdictions at the same level. A permanent population lives year round in this location (highly confident). There is frequent contact and communication between people in this location and officials in a nearby administrative center (inferred). This location is also characterized by an economy that is stable and tied to other economic networks during most of time period (confident).
The latitude of this location is 12.5 deg N, and its longitude is 83.5 deg W. The elevation of this location is 0 meters (highly confident). The highest elevation is 0. The lowest elevation of this location is 0. The region's average annual rainfall is 3810 milimeters (confident). The region's average annual evapotranspiration is . The distribution of rainfall and evapotranspiration per month is as follows:
January precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
February precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
March precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
April precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
May precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
June precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
July precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
August precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
September precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
October precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
November precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
December precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
The resource appropriated from Miskito Turtle Fishery is turtles. It is produced biologically and is a renewable moving (fugitive) unit. The turtle grounds extend 20 miles north, and 12 miles south of Tasbapauni, and 24 miles out into the Atlantic. The grounds include about 20 banks where turtles feed, 50 shoals where turtles sleep, and several cays where fishermen can camp. The boundary includes several physical elements, primarily banks and shoals, but the boundary is also defined by the extent the fishers can travel.
The boundary of this resource has natural/constructed and institutional arrangements which do not limit entry. The boundaries of this resource are smaller than the location, and exist in one country, and are not divided among multiple general purpose local jurisdictions at a single level. The boundaries of this resource are independent of a development project designed by non-residents.
There are distinct and stable micro-environmental or ecological zones within this resource (highly confident). The quality and/or quantity of units is regularly better in some of the zones than in others (highly confident). The variance in quality between the zones has at some point in time created conflict among appropriators.
There are natural barriers within the resource, and they coincide with microzones (highly confident). There are not strategic points within the resource where the main flow of the turtles can be controlled (highly confident). There is considerable, and predictable variation over space in the availability of turtles within the resource (highly confident). There is considerable, and predictable variation in the flow of turtles within a single year (highly confident). There is not considerable variation in the flow of turtles from year to year (inferred).
The bottom topography of Miskito Turtle Fishery is not indicated in the case study information.
If no rules in use were being followed, the relationship among the appropriation processes would have little adverse effects (inferred).
The boundaries of the production resource are totally seperated from the boundaries of the appropriation resource (highly confident). The boundaries of the production resource are totally seperated from the boundaries of the location (highly confident). The boundaries of the distribution resource and the boundaries of the appropriation resource overlap partially, but they are not equivalent (highly confident). The boundaries of the production resource and the boundaries of the distribution resource overlap paritally, but they are not equivalent (highly confident).
LOCATION:
The appropriation resources are situated on the eastern coast of Nicaragua, in the village of Tasbapauni and its turtling grounds. The boundaries of the location are primarily institutionally defined with the village, and the turtling grounds are both naturally and institutionally defined. The extent of the grounds is based on traditional usage of certain cays, reefs, and islands. The appropriation resource present in this location consists of turtles (coding), as well as shrimp, and wild animals. Regarding the use of the irrigation system, there were sometimes few adverse effects, and sometimes conflictual effects in the relationships among appropriation processes.
The system is located within one country. Within this country, the system's location is not divided among several general purpose local jurisdictions at the same level. A permanent population lives year round in this location (highly confident). There is frequent contact and communication between people in this location and officials in a nearby administrative center (inferred). This location is also characterized by an economy that is stable and tied to other economic networks during most of time period (confident).
The latitude of this location is 12.5 deg N, and its longitude is 83.5 deg W. The elevation of this location is 0 meters (highly confident). The highest elevation is 0. The lowest elevation of this location is 0. The region's average annual rainfall is 3810 milimeters (confident). The region's average annual evapotranspiration is . The distribution of rainfall and evapotranspiration per month is as follows:
January precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
February precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
March precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
April precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
May precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
June precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
July precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
August precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
September precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
October precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
November precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
December precipitation: N/A, evapotraspiration: N/A
RESOURCE:
The resource appropriated from Miskito Turtle Fishery is turtles. The turtle grounds extend 20 miles north, and 12 miles south of Tasbapauni, and 24 miles out into the Atlantic. The grounds include about 20 banks where turtles feed, 50 shoals where turtles sleep, and several cays where fishermen can camp. The boundary includes several physical elements, primarily banks and shoals, but the boundary is also defined by the extent the fishers can travel.
OPERATIONAL LEVEL:
TYPE OF SITUATION
The processes described in the related documents are primarily related to appropriation, production, distribution and use. The formal owner(s) of the resource discussed in this study is a central government. The set of individuals who have rights to withdraw from this resource is well-defined. As of the beginning of this period, the owners are not indicated as either attempting, or failing to attempt to exercise access to this resource. Since the beginning of this period, the appropriators are exercising (or attempting to exercise de facto) closed access to this resource.
EVENTS MARKING THE BEGINNING ACTION SITUATION
It is estimated that the operational level coded on this form ended in 0. The estimated duration of the patterns that are described in this form is 101 to 200 years. Throughout the duration there were no changes made in operational, collective, or consititutional rules. There was no change in resource size or structure. There was no new technology introduced to the system over the duration of the patterns coded on this form. There was no substantial external change in the value of the units appropriated. The quantity of units available did not change due to a change in appropriation patterns of other appropriators' withdrawals from the same production or distribution resource. There was a new local group starting to withdraw units from the appropriation resource. There was no recorded change to one or more variables internal to the operational level. The author begins the description of this case at this point in history. The author begins at this point in history because village was founded in 1860.
CONDITIONS AT THE BEGINNING AND END OF PERIOD COVERED BY THIS FORM*
For biological resources at the beginning of this period, the balance between the quantity of units withdrawn and the number of units available was quite abundant (educated guess). For biological resources at the end of this period, the balance between the quantity of units withdrawn and the number of units available was a moderate shortage (inferred). For physical resources at the beginning of this period, the balance between the quantity of units withdrawn and the quantity of units needed, given the usual patterns of use for these units was quite abundant (educated guess). For physical resources at the end of the period the balance between the quantity of units withdrawn and the quantity of units needed, given the usual patterns of use for these units, was a moderate shortage (inferred).
The following includes the available statistics on the use of this resource at the beginning of the time period, followed by the end of the time period:
Tons of fish harvested per year at the end of the period: 82 (confident)
*In fisheries and other biological systems, this is the maximum sustainable number of units. In irrigation, this refers to the optimal water requirements of the crops in the established fields served by this system.
At the beginning of the period, the units were predominantly consumed by appropriators and families.
At the end of the period, the units were predominantly consumed by appropriators and families, and also sold in local markets, and sold in external markets.
As of the beginning of the period, the quality of the units being withdrawn from the resource was high (inferred). As of the end of the period, the quality of the units being withdrawn from the resource was passable (inferred). At the beginning of the period of the study, there were no problems of pollution in this or other resources, due to the way units are being appropriated (inferred). At the end of the period of the study, there were no problems of pollution in this or other resources due to the way units are being appropriated (inferred). As of the beginning of the period, the extent of technical externalities resulting from the appropriation activities of participants from this resource was not indicated. As of the end of the period, the extent of technical externalities resulting from the appropriation activities of participants from this resource was not indicated. At the beginning of this study, the interference between the appropriation technology for this resource and the appropriation processes for other resources in this location was not recorded in the case information. At the end of this study, the interference between the appropriation technology for this resource and the appropriation processes for other resources in this location was moderate (inferred). At the beginning of this period the appropriators shared moderate to high levels of mutual trust (e.g. oral promises given high credence) (inferred). At the end of the period the appropriators shared moderate to high levels of mutual trust (e.g. oral promises given high credence) (inferred). ## Unknown markup: Start ##By the end of this period no change had occurred in the property rights regime related to the appropriation resource (inferred). At the end of this period the owners were exercising, or attempting to exercise, de jure and effective closed access to this resource (inferred). At the end of the period the appropriators were exercising, or attempting to exercise, de facto closed access to this resource (confident).
INFORMATION LEVELS
There are no maps or charts of the appropriation resource for use by the appropriators (educated guess). Maps and/or charts of the production and distribution resources are not available to the appropriators (educated guess). The appropriators of this resource can be seen by each other while withdrawing and delivering units (educated guess). No appropriators are in radio communication with each other while appropriating from the resource (inferred). There was no information provided to indicate whether or not there are actions being taken, by appropriators or officials, to generate information about the condition of the resource. There are not records of the withdrawals from this resource kept in a systematic way (inferred). There was no information in the study about whether or not there are records of the physical factors which directly affected the resource kept in a systematic way. There are arenas being used for the exchange of information about conditions of the resource (inferred). Appropriators get together to discuss mutual problems of the resource daily (inferred). The appropriators have an intimate knowledge of the characteristics of this resource (highly confident).
POTENTIAL ACTIONS AND LEVELS OF CONTROL
The quality or quantity of the units available to the appropriators are adversely affected by the strategies of prior appropriators (highly confident). This study did not include information on whether or not there are problems of pollution resulting from activities of others who are not appropriators of this resource or inhabitants of this location (e.g. acid rain, sewage disposal). Almost all appropriators sell this resource in multiple markets (confident). There appears to be an insurance mechanism available to the appropriators related to variability of income from the resource (inferred).
PATTERNS OF INTERACTION
Differences between subgroups relating to gender identification does not exist (highly confident). Differences between subgroups relating to ethnic identification does not exist (highly confident). Differences between subgroups relating to clan identification does not affect communication (highly confident). Differences between subgroups relating to racial identification does not exist (highly confident). Differences between subgroups relating to religious identification does not affect communication (highly confident). Differences between subgroups relating to languages spoken does not affect communication (highly confident). Differences between subgroups relating to general cultural views of the resource system and its use are small and created only mild communication problems (inferred). Differences between subgroups relating to any problems that affect communication does not exist (highly confident).
The general manner in which appropriators related to one another during this study is a relatively positive, reciprocal manner -- the presumption was made that long-term relationships are involved and positive actions are undertaken without a specific expectation of return (inferred). The documents present evidence of specific types of cooperative activities between the appropriators related to other local resources, as well as evidence that the appropriators have a general cultural pattern that stressed various types of cooperative activities besides the management of this resource (confident).
POSITIONS AND PARTICIPANTS
At the end of the period studied the position of non-appropriator (individuals prevented from using the resource) did not exist (inferred). At the beginning of the period there was a general estimate of some undocumented number appropriators. There was a general estimate of 51-100 appropriators at the end of the period (highly confident). A general estimate of the number of participants in the team appropriation process was not included in the case study, at the beginning of the period. A general estimate of the number of participants in the team appropriation process was 51-100, at the end of the period (highly confident). The "official" position of monitor (apart from the willingness of all appropriators to monitor) does not exist (inferred).
The case study did not include information regarding whether or not the appropriators monitor the appropriation activities of each other apart from the monitoring of any "official" guards.
NUMBER AND RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SUBGROUPS
There will be 2 subgroup form(s) completed in relation to this operational level form. The ID number(s) of the subgroup(s) coded are as follows: 37.1 - 38.1 - 0 - 0
Subgroups 37.1 and 38.1 differ in withdrawal rates from the resource and in levels of dependency on the units withdrawn from this resource.
Subgroups 37.1 and 38.1 do not differ in legal rights to appropriate units, in exposure to variations in supply, and in the way they use the appropriation units.
EVALUATION OF RESULTS
The study did not indicate whether or not there are appropriators who were consistently disadvantaged in this period. The study did not indicate whether or not the relatively worst off appropriators have or have not been cut out of their benefits from this resource or substantially harmed.
AUTHOR'S EVALUATION AND CAUSAL ASSUMPTIONS
The productive capacity of turtle grounds is declining. The size of units caught in pounds and the effort in appropriation as well as how units are used, were all poor. These results were based on the value of the unit appropriated, the type of economy (market or subsistence), the length of time appropriators used resource, and the appropriators' world view. The author discusses withdrawals per unit of effort based on Price per pound per hour takes to produce; calories per pound per hour takes to produce.
SUBGROUP:
Participants:
This subgroup includes males who live in Tasbapauni and who turtle part-time. The criteria for who is a member is well defined (highly confident). . This group ended with a membership of 26 (highly confident).
The following statements characterize the composition of this subgroup's population with respect to variables that may affect the capacity to communicate effectively:
Gender identification causes no difference in composition (highly confident). Ethnic or cultural identification causes no difference in composition (highly confident). Most members of this subgroup are ethnically identified as Miskito Indian. The difference in composition with regard to clan identification does not affect communication (highly confident). Racial identification causes no difference in composition (highly confident). Most members of this subgroup are racially identified as Indian. The difference in composition with regard to the languages spoken does not affect communication (highly confident). The language spoken by most members of the subgroup is Miskito.
The appropriation process is organized as a team process consisting of 13 groups.
Legal Rights:
Members of this subgroup have de jure rights of access (inferred). The right to withdraw is held by this subgroup de jure (inferred). Rights to participate in management of this resource is held de facto (inferred). Exclusion from use of the entire resource is exercised de facto (inferred). Members of this subgroup cannot exercise the right to decide who can be excluded from particular zones within the resource either de facto nor de jure. (inferred). The separable right of transfer to the flow of units from this resource is not held either by de jure nor de facto (inferred). The separable rights to exercise transfer to shares of this appropriation resource, or closely related production and/or distribution resources are neither held de jure nor de facto (educated guess).
Stakes and Resources:
The length of time this subgroup has regularly appropriated from this resource is 101 through 200 years (confident). Around 91%-100% of members reside in or adjacent to this resource (confident). Given the assets of members, the capital required to set up an appropriation team does not place pressure upon the appropriators to get immediate returns from appropriation (inferred). Around 91%-100% of this subgroup work a substantial amount of time in activities not associated with appropriation from this resource (confident). The proportion of this subgroup that currently appropriates similar units from other resources is less than 10% (inferred). Given the economy of the location, the average annual family income (including all non-monetary forms of income) is considered average (inferred). The variance of the average annual family income across families is low (inferred). Capital is owned by 91%-100% of this subgroup (confident). No real alternatives for the supply unit are available (confident).
Potential Actions and Levels of Control:
Keeping in mind the physically available levels of withdrawal that are possible from this resource, the following shows the extent to which rules concerning different aspects of withdrawal constrain appropriation: technological rules heavily constrain (inferred), time limits which limit the range of choice moderately constrain (inferred), quantity rules cause unknown contraints, marginal units or units obtained by increasing levels of appropriation have a high value immediate return (highly confident).
Technology:
The most recent technological change experienced by this subgroup was 26-50 years ago (educated guess). Considering other technologies that have not changed, this technology has been in use for 101-200 years (educated guess). The appropriative power of the technology used does not threaten the balance between units withdrawn and units available even if no new users are added (inferred).
Strategies Adopted:
At the beginning of the period the rate of unit withdrawals was constant (inferred). At the end of the period the rate of unit withdrawals was accelerating (inferred). During this time period members have not invested resources, such as their own labor, in maintaining or improving the structure of the appropriation resource (inferred). Investment into constructing or improving production or distribution works for maintaining or improving their resource has not been made by members (inferred). Resources have not been expended (including time) to avoid actions that would harm the structure of the appropriation resource (inferred). Members do not have access to an alternative source of supply (inferred). In characterizing the usual behavior of the members of this subgroup with respect to local operation level rules-in-use (other than in extreme shortage), it can be said that almost all of the members follow the rules set in place (highly confident). No action has been proposed to alter the operational or collective-choice rules affecting the appropriation from this resource (inferred).
Subgroup Results:
This subgroup appropriates less than 10% of its total appropriated units at the end of this period (ambiguous). The absolute quantity of appropriation units obtained by this group has become larger (inferred).
SUBGROUP:
Participants:
This subgroup includes males who live in Tasbapauni and who turtle full-time. The criteria for who is a member is well defined (highly confident). . This group ended with a membership of 80 (highly confident).
The following statements characterize the composition of this subgroup's population with respect to variables that may affect the capacity to communicate effectively:
Gender identification causes no difference in composition (highly confident). Difference in composition with regard to ethnic or cultural identification does not affect communication (highly confident). Most members of this subgroup are ethnically identified as Miskito Indian. The difference in composition with regard to clan identification does not affect communication (highly confident). The difference in composition with regard to racial identification does not affect communication (highly confident). Most members of this subgroup are racially identified as Indian. The difference in composition with regard to the languages spoken does not affect communication (highly confident).
The appropriation process is organized as a team process consisting of 40 groups.
Legal Rights:
Members of this subgroup have de jure rights of access (inferred). The right to withdraw is held by this subgroup de jure (inferred). Rights to participate in management of this resource is held de facto (inferred). Exclusion from use of the entire resource is exercised de facto (inferred). Members of this subgroup cannot exercise the right to decide who can be excluded from particular zones within the resource either de facto nor de jure. (inferred). The separable right of transfer to the flow of units from this resource is not held either by de jure nor de facto (inferred). The separable rights to exercise transfer to shares of this appropriation resource, or closely related production and/or distribution resources are neither held de jure nor de facto (educated guess).
Stakes and Resources:
The length of time this subgroup has regularly appropriated from this resource is 101 through 200 years (confident). Around 91%-100% of members reside in or adjacent to this resource (confident). Given the assets of members, the capital required to set up an appropriation team does not place pressure upon the appropriators to get immediate returns from appropriation (inferred). Most people in this subgroup are very dependent (i.e. most of the family income) on this resource (inferred). Less than 10% of this subgroup work a substantial amount of time in activities not associated with appropriation from this resource (highly confident). The proportion of this subgroup that currently appropriates similar units from other resources is less than 10% (highly confident). Given the economy of the location, the average annual family income (including all non-monetary forms of income) is considered average (inferred). The variance of the average annual family income across families is low (inferred). Capital is owned by 91%-100% of this subgroup (confident). No real alternatives for the supply unit are available (confident).
Potential Actions and Levels of Control:
A noticeable impact on the balance of the quantity of units withdrawn and the number of units available in this resource would occur in a drastic reduction of this subgroup's appropriation activities (inferred). Keeping in mind the physically available levels of withdrawal that are possible from this resource, the following shows the extent to which rules concerning different aspects of withdrawal constrain appropriation: technological rules heavily constrain (inferred), time limits which limit the range of choice moderately constrain (educated guess), quantity rules cause unknown contraints, marginal units or units obtained by increasing levels of appropriation have a high value immediate return (highly confident).
Technology:
The most recent technological change experienced by this subgroup was 26-50 years ago (educated guess). Considering other technologies that have not changed, this technology has been in use for 101-200 years (educated guess). The appropriative power of the technology used does not threaten the balance between units withdrawn and units available even if no new users are added (inferred).
Strategies Adopted:
At the beginning of the period the rate of unit withdrawals was constant (educated guess). At the end of the period the rate of unit withdrawals was accelerating (inferred). During this time period members have not invested resources, such as their own labor, in maintaining or improving the structure of the appropriation resource (inferred). Investment into constructing or improving production or distribution works for maintaining or improving their resource has not been made by members (inferred). Resources have not been expended (including time) to avoid actions that would harm the structure of the appropriation resource (inferred). Members do not have access to an alternative source of supply (inferred). In characterizing the usual behavior of the members of this subgroup with respect to local operation level rules-in-use (other than in extreme shortage), it can be said that almost all of the members follow the rules set in place (highly confident). No action has been proposed to alter the operational or collective-choice rules affecting the appropriation from this resource (inferred).
Subgroup Results:
This subgroup appropriates 91%-100% of its total appropriated units at the end of this period (confident). The absolute quantity of appropriation units obtained by this group has become larger (inferred).
The resource appropriated from Miskito Turtle Fishery is turtles. The turtle grounds extend 20 miles north, and 12 miles south of Tasbapauni, and 24 miles out into the Atlantic. The grounds include about 20 banks where turtles feed, 50 shoals where turtles sleep, and several cays where fishermen can camp. The boundary includes several physical elements, primarily banks and shoals, but the boundary is also defined by the extent the fishers can travel.
OPERATIONAL LEVEL:
TYPE OF SITUATION
The processes described in the related documents are primarily related to appropriation, production, distribution and use. The formal owner(s) of the resource discussed in this study is a central government. The set of individuals who have rights to withdraw from this resource is well-defined. As of the beginning of this period, the owners are not indicated as either attempting, or failing to attempt to exercise access to this resource. Since the beginning of this period, the appropriators are exercising (or attempting to exercise de facto) closed access to this resource.
EVENTS MARKING THE BEGINNING ACTION SITUATION
It is estimated that the operational level coded on this form ended in 0. The estimated duration of the patterns that are described in this form is 101 to 200 years. Throughout the duration there were no changes made in operational, collective, or consititutional rules. There was no change in resource size or structure. There was no new technology introduced to the system over the duration of the patterns coded on this form. There was no substantial external change in the value of the units appropriated. The quantity of units available did not change due to a change in appropriation patterns of other appropriators' withdrawals from the same production or distribution resource. There was a new local group starting to withdraw units from the appropriation resource. There was no recorded change to one or more variables internal to the operational level. The author begins the description of this case at this point in history. The author begins at this point in history because village was founded in 1860.
CONDITIONS AT THE BEGINNING AND END OF PERIOD COVERED BY THIS FORM*
For biological resources at the beginning of this period, the balance between the quantity of units withdrawn and the number of units available was quite abundant (educated guess). For biological resources at the end of this period, the balance between the quantity of units withdrawn and the number of units available was a moderate shortage (inferred). For physical resources at the beginning of this period, the balance between the quantity of units withdrawn and the quantity of units needed, given the usual patterns of use for these units was quite abundant (educated guess). For physical resources at the end of the period the balance between the quantity of units withdrawn and the quantity of units needed, given the usual patterns of use for these units, was a moderate shortage (inferred).
The following includes the available statistics on the use of this resource at the beginning of the time period, followed by the end of the time period:
Tons of fish harvested per year at the end of the period: 82 (confident)
*In fisheries and other biological systems, this is the maximum sustainable number of units. In irrigation, this refers to the optimal water requirements of the crops in the established fields served by this system.
At the beginning of the period, the units were predominantly consumed by appropriators and families.
At the end of the period, the units were predominantly consumed by appropriators and families, and also sold in local markets, and sold in external markets.
As of the beginning of the period, the quality of the units being withdrawn from the resource was high (inferred). As of the end of the period, the quality of the units being withdrawn from the resource was passable (inferred). At the beginning of the period of the study, there were no problems of pollution in this or other resources, due to the way units are being appropriated (inferred). At the end of the period of the study, there were no problems of pollution in this or other resources due to the way units are being appropriated (inferred). As of the beginning of the period, the extent of technical externalities resulting from the appropriation activities of participants from this resource was not indicated. As of the end of the period, the extent of technical externalities resulting from the appropriation activities of participants from this resource was not indicated. At the beginning of this study, the interference between the appropriation technology for this resource and the appropriation processes for other resources in this location was not recorded in the case information. At the end of this study, the interference between the appropriation technology for this resource and the appropriation processes for other resources in this location was moderate (inferred). At the beginning of this period the appropriators shared moderate to high levels of mutual trust (e.g. oral promises given high credence) (inferred). At the end of the period the appropriators shared moderate to high levels of mutual trust (e.g. oral promises given high credence) (inferred). ## Unknown markup: Start ##By the end of this period no change had occurred in the property rights regime related to the appropriation resource (inferred). At the end of this period the owners were exercising, or attempting to exercise, de jure and effective closed access to this resource (inferred). At the end of the period the appropriators were exercising, or attempting to exercise, de facto closed access to this resource (confident).
INFORMATION LEVELS
There are no maps or charts of the appropriation resource for use by the appropriators (educated guess). Maps and/or charts of the production and distribution resources are not available to the appropriators (educated guess). The appropriators of this resource can be seen by each other while withdrawing and delivering units (educated guess). No appropriators are in radio communication with each other while appropriating from the resource (inferred). There was no information provided to indicate whether or not there are actions being taken, by appropriators or officials, to generate information about the condition of the resource. There are not records of the withdrawals from this resource kept in a systematic way (inferred). There was no information in the study about whether or not there are records of the physical factors which directly affected the resource kept in a systematic way. There are arenas being used for the exchange of information about conditions of the resource (inferred). Appropriators get together to discuss mutual problems of the resource daily (inferred). The appropriators have an intimate knowledge of the characteristics of this resource (highly confident).
POTENTIAL ACTIONS AND LEVELS OF CONTROL
The quality or quantity of the units available to the appropriators are adversely affected by the strategies of prior appropriators (highly confident). This study did not include information on whether or not there are problems of pollution resulting from activities of others who are not appropriators of this resource or inhabitants of this location (e.g. acid rain, sewage disposal). Almost all appropriators sell this resource in multiple markets (confident). There appears to be an insurance mechanism available to the appropriators related to variability of income from the resource (inferred).
PATTERNS OF INTERACTION
Differences between subgroups relating to gender identification does not exist (highly confident). Differences between subgroups relating to ethnic identification does not exist (highly confident). Differences between subgroups relating to clan identification does not affect communication (highly confident). Differences between subgroups relating to racial identification does not exist (highly confident). Differences between subgroups relating to religious identification does not affect communication (highly confident). Differences between subgroups relating to languages spoken does not affect communication (highly confident). Differences between subgroups relating to general cultural views of the resource system and its use are small and created only mild communication problems (inferred). Differences between subgroups relating to any problems that affect communication does not exist (highly confident).
The general manner in which appropriators related to one another during this study is a relatively positive, reciprocal manner -- the presumption was made that long-term relationships are involved and positive actions are undertaken without a specific expectation of return (inferred). The documents present evidence of specific types of cooperative activities between the appropriators related to other local resources, as well as evidence that the appropriators have a general cultural pattern that stressed various types of cooperative activities besides the management of this resource (confident).
POSITIONS AND PARTICIPANTS
At the end of the period studied the position of non-appropriator (individuals prevented from using the resource) did not exist (inferred). At the beginning of the period there was a general estimate of some undocumented number appropriators. There was a general estimate of 51-100 appropriators at the end of the period (highly confident). A general estimate of the number of participants in the team appropriation process was not included in the case study, at the beginning of the period. A general estimate of the number of participants in the team appropriation process was 51-100, at the end of the period (highly confident). The "official" position of monitor (apart from the willingness of all appropriators to monitor) does not exist (inferred).
The case study did not include information regarding whether or not the appropriators monitor the appropriation activities of each other apart from the monitoring of any "official" guards.
NUMBER AND RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SUBGROUPS
There will be 2 subgroup form(s) completed in relation to this operational level form. The ID number(s) of the subgroup(s) coded are as follows: 37.1 - 38.1 - 0 - 0
Subgroups 37.1 and 38.1 differ in withdrawal rates from the resource and in levels of dependency on the units withdrawn from this resource.
Subgroups 37.1 and 38.1 do not differ in legal rights to appropriate units, in exposure to variations in supply, and in the way they use the appropriation units.
EVALUATION OF RESULTS
The study did not indicate whether or not there are appropriators who were consistently disadvantaged in this period. The study did not indicate whether or not the relatively worst off appropriators have or have not been cut out of their benefits from this resource or substantially harmed.
AUTHOR'S EVALUATION AND CAUSAL ASSUMPTIONS
The productive capacity of turtle grounds is declining. The size of units caught in pounds and the effort in appropriation as well as how units are used, were all poor. These results were based on the value of the unit appropriated, the type of economy (market or subsistence), the length of time appropriators used resource, and the appropriators' world view. The author discusses withdrawals per unit of effort based on Price per pound per hour takes to produce; calories per pound per hour takes to produce.
SUBGROUP:
Participants:
This subgroup includes males who live in Tasbapauni and who turtle part-time. The criteria for who is a member is well defined (highly confident). . This group ended with a membership of 26 (highly confident).
The following statements characterize the composition of this subgroup's population with respect to variables that may affect the capacity to communicate effectively:
Gender identification causes no difference in composition (highly confident). Ethnic or cultural identification causes no difference in composition (highly confident). Most members of this subgroup are ethnically identified as Miskito Indian. The difference in composition with regard to clan identification does not affect communication (highly confident). Racial identification causes no difference in composition (highly confident). Most members of this subgroup are racially identified as Indian. The difference in composition with regard to the languages spoken does not affect communication (highly confident). The language spoken by most members of the subgroup is Miskito.
The appropriation process is organized as a team process consisting of 13 groups.
Legal Rights:
Members of this subgroup have de jure rights of access (inferred). The right to withdraw is held by this subgroup de jure (inferred). Rights to participate in management of this resource is held de facto (inferred). Exclusion from use of the entire resource is exercised de facto (inferred). Members of this subgroup cannot exercise the right to decide who can be excluded from particular zones within the resource either de facto nor de jure. (inferred). The separable right of transfer to the flow of units from this resource is not held either by de jure nor de facto (inferred). The separable rights to exercise transfer to shares of this appropriation resource, or closely related production and/or distribution resources are neither held de jure nor de facto (educated guess).
Stakes and Resources:
The length of time this subgroup has regularly appropriated from this resource is 101 through 200 years (confident). Around 91%-100% of members reside in or adjacent to this resource (confident). Given the assets of members, the capital required to set up an appropriation team does not place pressure upon the appropriators to get immediate returns from appropriation (inferred). Around 91%-100% of this subgroup work a substantial amount of time in activities not associated with appropriation from this resource (confident). The proportion of this subgroup that currently appropriates similar units from other resources is less than 10% (inferred). Given the economy of the location, the average annual family income (including all non-monetary forms of income) is considered average (inferred). The variance of the average annual family income across families is low (inferred). Capital is owned by 91%-100% of this subgroup (confident). No real alternatives for the supply unit are available (confident).
Potential Actions and Levels of Control:
Keeping in mind the physically available levels of withdrawal that are possible from this resource, the following shows the extent to which rules concerning different aspects of withdrawal constrain appropriation: technological rules heavily constrain (inferred), time limits which limit the range of choice moderately constrain (inferred), quantity rules cause unknown contraints, marginal units or units obtained by increasing levels of appropriation have a high value immediate return (highly confident).
Technology:
The most recent technological change experienced by this subgroup was 26-50 years ago (educated guess). Considering other technologies that have not changed, this technology has been in use for 101-200 years (educated guess). The appropriative power of the technology used does not threaten the balance between units withdrawn and units available even if no new users are added (inferred).
Strategies Adopted:
At the beginning of the period the rate of unit withdrawals was constant (inferred). At the end of the period the rate of unit withdrawals was accelerating (inferred). During this time period members have not invested resources, such as their own labor, in maintaining or improving the structure of the appropriation resource (inferred). Investment into constructing or improving production or distribution works for maintaining or improving their resource has not been made by members (inferred). Resources have not been expended (including time) to avoid actions that would harm the structure of the appropriation resource (inferred). Members do not have access to an alternative source of supply (inferred). In characterizing the usual behavior of the members of this subgroup with respect to local operation level rules-in-use (other than in extreme shortage), it can be said that almost all of the members follow the rules set in place (highly confident). No action has been proposed to alter the operational or collective-choice rules affecting the appropriation from this resource (inferred).
Subgroup Results:
This subgroup appropriates less than 10% of its total appropriated units at the end of this period (ambiguous). The absolute quantity of appropriation units obtained by this group has become larger (inferred).
SUBGROUP:
Participants:
This subgroup includes males who live in Tasbapauni and who turtle full-time. The criteria for who is a member is well defined (highly confident). . This group ended with a membership of 80 (highly confident).
The following statements characterize the composition of this subgroup's population with respect to variables that may affect the capacity to communicate effectively:
Gender identification causes no difference in composition (highly confident). Difference in composition with regard to ethnic or cultural identification does not affect communication (highly confident). Most members of this subgroup are ethnically identified as Miskito Indian. The difference in composition with regard to clan identification does not affect communication (highly confident). The difference in composition with regard to racial identification does not affect communication (highly confident). Most members of this subgroup are racially identified as Indian. The difference in composition with regard to the languages spoken does not affect communication (highly confident).
The appropriation process is organized as a team process consisting of 40 groups.
Legal Rights:
Members of this subgroup have de jure rights of access (inferred). The right to withdraw is held by this subgroup de jure (inferred). Rights to participate in management of this resource is held de facto (inferred). Exclusion from use of the entire resource is exercised de facto (inferred). Members of this subgroup cannot exercise the right to decide who can be excluded from particular zones within the resource either de facto nor de jure. (inferred). The separable right of transfer to the flow of units from this resource is not held either by de jure nor de facto (inferred). The separable rights to exercise transfer to shares of this appropriation resource, or closely related production and/or distribution resources are neither held de jure nor de facto (educated guess).
Stakes and Resources:
The length of time this subgroup has regularly appropriated from this resource is 101 through 200 years (confident). Around 91%-100% of members reside in or adjacent to this resource (confident). Given the assets of members, the capital required to set up an appropriation team does not place pressure upon the appropriators to get immediate returns from appropriation (inferred). Most people in this subgroup are very dependent (i.e. most of the family income) on this resource (inferred). Less than 10% of this subgroup work a substantial amount of time in activities not associated with appropriation from this resource (highly confident). The proportion of this subgroup that currently appropriates similar units from other resources is less than 10% (highly confident). Given the economy of the location, the average annual family income (including all non-monetary forms of income) is considered average (inferred). The variance of the average annual family income across families is low (inferred). Capital is owned by 91%-100% of this subgroup (confident). No real alternatives for the supply unit are available (confident).
Potential Actions and Levels of Control:
A noticeable impact on the balance of the quantity of units withdrawn and the number of units available in this resource would occur in a drastic reduction of this subgroup's appropriation activities (inferred). Keeping in mind the physically available levels of withdrawal that are possible from this resource, the following shows the extent to which rules concerning different aspects of withdrawal constrain appropriation: technological rules heavily constrain (inferred), time limits which limit the range of choice moderately constrain (educated guess), quantity rules cause unknown contraints, marginal units or units obtained by increasing levels of appropriation have a high value immediate return (highly confident).
Technology:
The most recent technological change experienced by this subgroup was 26-50 years ago (educated guess). Considering other technologies that have not changed, this technology has been in use for 101-200 years (educated guess). The appropriative power of the technology used does not threaten the balance between units withdrawn and units available even if no new users are added (inferred).
Strategies Adopted:
At the beginning of the period the rate of unit withdrawals was constant (educated guess). At the end of the period the rate of unit withdrawals was accelerating (inferred). During this time period members have not invested resources, such as their own labor, in maintaining or improving the structure of the appropriation resource (inferred). Investment into constructing or improving production or distribution works for maintaining or improving their resource has not been made by members (inferred). Resources have not been expended (including time) to avoid actions that would harm the structure of the appropriation resource (inferred). Members do not have access to an alternative source of supply (inferred). In characterizing the usual behavior of the members of this subgroup with respect to local operation level rules-in-use (other than in extreme shortage), it can be said that almost all of the members follow the rules set in place (highly confident). No action has been proposed to alter the operational or collective-choice rules affecting the appropriation from this resource (inferred).
Subgroup Results:
This subgroup appropriates 91%-100% of its total appropriated units at the end of this period (confident). The absolute quantity of appropriation units obtained by this group has become larger (inferred).
RESOURCE:
The resource appropriated from Miskito Turtle Fishery is turtles. The turtle grounds extend 20 miles north, and 12 miles south of Tasbapauni, and 24 miles out into the Atlantic. The grounds include about 20 banks where turtles feed, 50 shoals where turtles sleep, and several cays where fishermen can camp. The boundary includes several physical elements, primarily banks and shoals, but the boundary is also defined by the extent the fishers can travel.
OPERATIONAL RULES:
Concerning national collective choice relating to the resource, the author provides a few detailed references to operational level rules as devised by national collective choice mechanisms which have been coded below. Concerning regional collective choice, the author provides NO information about operational level rules as devised by regional collective choice mechanisms, however a regional level of government does exist.
With regard to local collective choice, a level of government or organization of appropriators exists at the location but the author provides NO information about operational level rules as devised by collective choice mechanisms.
Boundary Rules
The following rules define the requirements that must be met before individuals are eligible to harvest or withdraw units from the appropriation resource.
A rule exists requiring citizenship of a major subdivision of a country. This rule is enforced at the rules-in-use level(s).
A rule exists requiring citizenship or residence of a local community. This rule is enforced at the rules-in-use level(s).
A rule exists requiring membership in an ethnic group. This rule is enforced at the rules-in-use level(s).
A rule exists requiring an appropriator to be of a certain gender. This rule is enforced at the rules-in-use level(s).
A rule exists requiring use of a particular technology. This rule is enforced at the rules-in-use level(s).
The boundary rules do not assign substantially unequal privileges to some subgroups over others.
Authority and Scope Rules
The default conditions for both authority and scope rules do not apply.
The following paragraphs include information on rules of 1 cycle(s).
Authority Rules:
There is a rule requiring withdrawal only during specific seasons, based on unincluded, specific criteria. This rule is enforced at the national level(s), and is part of the most restrictive, regularly adopted/used set of rules.
The length of the withdrawing season is 0 week(s)..
There is a rule forbidding withdrawal whenever and wherever desired, based on unincluded, specific criteria. This rule is enforced at the national level(s), and is part of the most restrictive, regularly adopted/used set of rules.
There is a rule permitting withdrawal whenever and wherever desired, based on unspecific criteria. This rule is enforced at the rules-in-use level(s), and is part of the most restrictive, regularly adopted/used set of rules.
There are other rules, based on the historical pattern of appropriation. Such rules are enforced at the rules-in-use level(s), and are part of the most restrictive, regularly adopted/used set of rules.
The authority and scope rules do not assign substantially unequal privileges to some subgroups above others.
Scope Rules:
Authority and scope rules do not assign substantially unequal duties among subgroups.
Information Rules
Payoff Rules
The default condition, that all appropriators can retain whatever they can physically keep hold of and no external rewards, taxes, or sanctions are imposed is not imposed in this case. The authors have the following confidence level for the results of this section: inferred. The payoff rules do not assign substantially unequal rewards to some subgroups than others. The payoff rules do not assign substantially unequal punishments to some subgroups than others.
There is a single arrangement by which the appropriation process is organized by teams.The following percentages indicate the percentages assigned to individual positions. If more than one percentage is listed per position, the individual percentages refer to the different arrangements existing within the operational rules.
Owner(s) - operators(s) of primary appropriation equipment:
100%; 0%; 0%
Aggregation Rules
Overall Questions About Rules Configuration
The general framework of the rules-in-use has governed the activities of this subgroup for 101 to 199 years.
The resource appropriated from Miskito Turtle Fishery is turtles. The turtle grounds extend 20 miles north, and 12 miles south of Tasbapauni, and 24 miles out into the Atlantic. The grounds include about 20 banks where turtles feed, 50 shoals where turtles sleep, and several cays where fishermen can camp. The boundary includes several physical elements, primarily banks and shoals, but the boundary is also defined by the extent the fishers can travel.
OPERATIONAL RULES:
Concerning national collective choice relating to the resource, the author provides a few detailed references to operational level rules as devised by national collective choice mechanisms which have been coded below. Concerning regional collective choice, the author provides NO information about operational level rules as devised by regional collective choice mechanisms, however a regional level of government does exist.
With regard to local collective choice, a level of government or organization of appropriators exists at the location but the author provides NO information about operational level rules as devised by collective choice mechanisms.
Boundary Rules
The following rules define the requirements that must be met before individuals are eligible to harvest or withdraw units from the appropriation resource.
A rule exists requiring citizenship of a major subdivision of a country. This rule is enforced at the rules-in-use level(s).
A rule exists requiring citizenship or residence of a local community. This rule is enforced at the rules-in-use level(s).
A rule exists requiring membership in an ethnic group. This rule is enforced at the rules-in-use level(s).
A rule exists requiring an appropriator to be of a certain gender. This rule is enforced at the rules-in-use level(s).
A rule exists requiring use of a particular technology. This rule is enforced at the rules-in-use level(s).
The boundary rules do not assign substantially unequal privileges to some subgroups over others.
Authority and Scope Rules
The default conditions for both authority and scope rules do not apply.
The following paragraphs include information on rules of 1 cycle(s).
Authority Rules:
There is a rule requiring withdrawal only during specific seasons, based on unincluded, specific criteria. This rule is enforced at the national level(s), and is part of the most restrictive, regularly adopted/used set of rules.
The length of the withdrawing season is 0 week(s)..
There is a rule forbidding withdrawal whenever and wherever desired, based on unincluded, specific criteria. This rule is enforced at the national level(s), and is part of the most restrictive, regularly adopted/used set of rules.
There is a rule permitting withdrawal whenever and wherever desired, based on unspecific criteria. This rule is enforced at the rules-in-use level(s), and is part of the most restrictive, regularly adopted/used set of rules.
There are other rules, based on the historical pattern of appropriation. Such rules are enforced at the rules-in-use level(s), and are part of the most restrictive, regularly adopted/used set of rules.
The authority and scope rules do not assign substantially unequal privileges to some subgroups above others.
Scope Rules:
Authority and scope rules do not assign substantially unequal duties among subgroups.
Information Rules
Payoff Rules
The default condition, that all appropriators can retain whatever they can physically keep hold of and no external rewards, taxes, or sanctions are imposed is not imposed in this case. The authors have the following confidence level for the results of this section: inferred. The payoff rules do not assign substantially unequal rewards to some subgroups than others. The payoff rules do not assign substantially unequal punishments to some subgroups than others.
There is a single arrangement by which the appropriation process is organized by teams.The following percentages indicate the percentages assigned to individual positions. If more than one percentage is listed per position, the individual percentages refer to the different arrangements existing within the operational rules.
Owner(s) - operators(s) of primary appropriation equipment:
100%; 0%; 0%
Aggregation Rules
Overall Questions About Rules Configuration
The general framework of the rules-in-use has governed the activities of this subgroup for 101 to 199 years.
Green turtle fishery in Tasbapauni (1969 to 1971)
Resource System
Resource system (natural infrastructure): Tropical coastal marine ecosystem, including seagrass beds, shoals, turtle banks (shared), and endangered green turtles (common pool).
Resource Users
There are two main groups of resource users that are important in this case:
- Approx. 1,000 indigenous Miskito organized in an estimated 200 households
- 106 turtle fishermen (80 full-time, 26 part-time turtle fishers)
Public Infrastructure Providers
- The turtle fishermen are the public infrastructure providers (inferred)
- National government
Public Infrastructure
Public hard infrastructure:
- Passenger-freight boats commuting along the coast between the major port cities in the south and the north.
- Public markets in Puerto Cabezas (north) and Bluefields (south).
Hard private infrastructure crucial to this case study:
- Dugout canoe (dories) fitted for sailing
- Harpoons
- Turtle nets
- Turtle factories in Bluefields, Puerto Cabezas, and on Corn Island
Soft infrastructure:
- Traditional social norms based on a generalized reciprocal gift (food) exchange based on kinship distance and generosity (green turtles represent a use value) – food is shared and any food surplus may be sold within the village community only.
- Belief that everyone has a right to food.
- Western values based on production for market exchange (green turtles represent exchange/cash value that benefits individual families only).
- 1965 government prohibition on harvesting adult male and egg-bearing female turtles from May 1 through July.
Relationship 1
RU => R:
- Turtle fishers generally extract turtles for subsistence use, although some turtles are harvested for sale after kinship obligations have been met.
- Turtle fishers generally extract turtles by harpooning them; some are extracted with nylon nets (mainly during the dry season when the sea is calm).
- Turtle fishers endure fewer losses due to the reduced subsistence risk of meat-getting in turtle fishing.
R => RU:
- Weather patterns, littoral currents, the lunar cycle, and trade winds modify (limit) the use of sailing dories and impact harvesting opportunities.
- Change in distributional pattern of green turtles due to biological factors, sea and wind conditions, and time of day modify (limit) harvesting availability.
- Green turtle meat which is highly esteemed and culturally acceptable provides a means to fulfill kinship ties and obligations through the generalized reciprocity of meat exchange/gift.
Relationship 2
RU => PIP:
- Traditional generalized reciprocal exchange patterns are shaping expectations of food sharing among turtlers' kin.
PIP => RU:
- Individual turtle fishermen’s level of engagement with international market transactions is influencing his ability to participate in reciprocal food exchange patterns.
Relationship 3
PIP => hard private infrastructure:
- PIP build and maintain dories, sails, harpoons, and nets.
PIP => soft PI:
- Turtle fishermen do not provide any specific harvesting rules.
- Enforcement of annual government harvesting prohibition from May 1 to July is provided through resident guardia (government soldiers).
Soft PI => PIP:
- Miskito’s belief that everyone has a right to food may constrain the creation of rules to regulate green turtle harvesting.
- Neither social norms nor market-based considerations provide sufficient incentive for PIP to regulate the fishery.
Hard private infrastructure => PIP:
- Assured market and high prices offered by turtle factories are providing turtle fishers with an incentive to generate surplus turtle catches for cash profits.
Relationship 4
Hard private infrastructure => R:
- Turtle factories are enabling access to global markets for green turtle meat.
Soft infrastructure => R:
- No collecting of turtle harvesting data (i.e., monitoring) by resident guardia or turtle fishermen (inferred).
Relationship 5
Hard private infrastructure => [RU => R]:
- High price for turtles offered by turtle factories is incentivizing an increase in turtle harvesting for sale but restricting the amount of turtle meat available for consumption in Tasbapauni.
- High cost of dories, harpoons and nets incentivizing the harvesting of surplus turtles for sale.
Soft PI => [RU => R]:
- Social norms such as "luck of the gift" (turtles will continue to be plentiful as long as their meat is shared generously) no longer regulate turtle harvesting behavior within sustainable levels.
- No monitoring (or sanctioning) of annual government prohibition by resident guardia, except in public markets in Puerto Cabezas and Bluefields.
[R => RU] => Hard private infrastructure:
Decrease in green turtle availability due to commercial overexploitation at nesting beach in Tortuguero is promoting:
- Use of smaller and faster dories
- The transition from harpoons to turtle nets to enable greater harvests.
Relationship 6
RU => hard private infrastructure AND hard private infrastructure => RU:
Selling turtles to turtle factories for monetary profit likely results in:
- Erosion of social relations among Miskito (many turtlers no longer honoring kinship obligations with a gift of meat, thereby cutting off some families from meat distribution).
- Erosion of Miskito’s traditional knowledge and skill related to diversified subsistence procurement activities.
- Miskito enculturation to an economic dependence on endangered green turtles.
- Enhanced conflict within the Tasbapauni community due to a lack of availability of desired turtle meat.
Hard private infrastructure => RU:
- Turtle nets empowering less skilled turtle fishers with a greater ability to harvest green turtles.
Soft PI -> RU:
- Market-based economic considerations are increasingly shaping expectations of younger turtle fishermen.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Resource System)
Exogenous drivers that influence the resource system:
- Commercial turtle fishery operating in Tortuguero, Costa Rica, at the site of the green turtle nesting beach.
- Heavy commercial shrimp boat activity operating close to Tasbapauni shore during the dry season drowns green turtles in their nets and prevents the Miskito from setting turtle nets in the mudset zone.
- Green turtles are an endangered species.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Public Infrastructure)
Exogenous drivers that influence the hard private infrastructure:
- Introduction of turtle nets
Exogenous drivers that influence the soft infrastructure:
- International market demand for green turtle meat has facilitated the building of three turtle processing plants along the Miskito coast.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Resource Users)
Exogenous social drivers:
- Population growth rate (estimated at 3.3 percent annually).
Exogenous economic drivers:
- Lack of alternative employment opportunities.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Public Infrastructure Providers)
Exogenous drivers that influence PIP:
- Conflict between values of older and younger Miskito turtlemen with regard to turtle harvesting.
Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Resource Users)
(none specified)Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Public Infrastructure Providers)
(none specified)Artisanal green turtle fishery (1991 - 2011)
Resource System
Resource system (natural infrastructure): Tropical coastal marine ecosystem, including seagrass beds, shoals, turtle banks (shared), and endangered green turtles (common pool).
Resource Users
Resource users are broadly organized into two subgroups:
- Unknown number of artisanal green turtle fishers, who are of indigenous Miskito descent, living in approximately three communities in the Northern Atlantic Autonomous Region (RAAN); and
- Unknown number of artisanal green turtle fishers, who are of indigenous Miskito, Creole, or mixed Miskito/Creole descent, living in approximately nine communities in the Southern Atlantic Autonomous Region (RAAS).
Public Infrastructure Providers
Central government (national):
- Ministerio de Fomento (Ministry of Development, Industry and Commerce)
- MARENA (Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources) with offices in Puerta Cabezas (RAAN) and Bluefields (RAAS)
Territorial authorities:
- 1 territorial authority in the RAAN (Region Autonoma Atlantica del Norte/North Atlantic Autonomous Region)
- 3 territorial authorities in the RAAS (Region Autonoma Atlantica del Sur/South Atlantic Autonomous Region)
Municipalities:
- 1 municipality in the RAAN
- 3 municipalities in the RAAS
Communities:
- Sindigos in three Miskito communities in the RAAN
- Sindigos in numerous communities in the RAAS
Public Infrastructure
Hard public infrastructure:
- Completion of the trans-isthmian highway connecting Pearl Lagoon (RAAS) via El Rama to Managua in autumn 2007
- Pangas (small passenger boats) and ferries commuting along the coast and inland via waterways
- Passenger bus commuting daily between Pearl Lagoon and El Rama
Hard private infrastructure:
- Large-mesh turtle nets (predominant fishing method)
- Motorized fishing boats (inferred)
Soft infrastructure:
National level:
- Article 60 of the Constitution of Nicaragua obligates the state to “preserve, conserve, and restore the environment and natural resources to establish the appropriate structures and measures to fulfill this mandate."
- Article 89 of the Constitution recognizes the rights of Caribbean coastal communities to preserve and develop their cultural identity..."
- Ley de Pesca y Agricultura No. 489 (2004) and provides subsistence fishing exception to fishers in general, and Law No. 28 provides subsistence use exception under federal law to harvest green turtles for purposes of providing sustenance and food for the fisher and his/her family (not for sale in any form).
- A Statute of Autonomy (1987) established the autonomous regions of the RAAS and the RAAN, thereby conferring in part natural resource ownership and extraction rights to indigenous communities.
Territorial authorities:
- RAAS regulations at the territorial level to limit green turtle harvesting.
- RAAN regulations at the territorial level to limit green turtle harvesting.
Municipalities:
- Municipalities of the RAAS and RAAN have their own set of rules governing green turtle harvesting.
Communities:
- Sindigos within individual communities in the RAAS and RAAN implement regulations affecting green turtle harvesting.
Relationship 1
R => RU
- The marine ecosystem provides habitat conducive to the target species of the fishery; green turtles.
RU => R
- Turtle fishers extract turtles commercially at annual harvest rates estimated at 8,169 +/- 2,182 green turtles (mean estimated minimum capture).
- Turtle fishers extract green turtles year-round without any restrictions (e.g. closed seasons, size, age, or gender limitations).
- Turtles are extracted predominantly with nets and motorized boats.
- Bulk of turtles extracted are large immature juveniles and foraging adult turtles on their way to and from the natal nesting site in Tortuguero, Costa Rica.
Relationship 2
RU => PIP:
- Some evidence in literature that turtle fishers may influence/petition members of local/regional PIP.
- Unknown whether turtle fishers elect local/regional PIP.
PIP => RU:
- Local authorities influenced by economic hardship of villagers to relax green turtle harvest regulations.
- RAAS and RAAN influence turtle fishers' behavior by reinstating green turtle fishery in spite of MARENA ban.
Relationship 3
PIP => PI (soft):
- PIP at all governance levels produce regulations to constrain turtle harvesting activity.
- RAAS and RAAN governments constrain effectiveness of MARENA ban on turtle harvesting by rejecting it.
- Enforcement of regulations is provided by various agents at the community, municipal, territorial, and national level.
National-level enforcement is provided through local MARENA offices located in Bluefields (south) and Puerto Cabezas (north).
PI (soft) => PIP:
- Green turtle harvesting regulations are constrained by lack of coordination between PIP at various governance levels.
Relationship 4
PI (hard) => R:
- Completion of road from Pearl Lagoon to El Rama is enabling access to inland markets for green turtle products.
PI (soft) => R:
- No collecting of turtle harvesting data (i.e., monitoring) at any governance level (inferred).
Relationship 5
PI (soft) => [RU => R]:
- Subsistence use exception to domestic protection of endangered green turtles has incentivized the creation of a commercial green turtle fishery.
- Lack of enforcement of regulations and sanctions is enabling year-round commercial harvesting of green turtles by turtle fishers.
Relationship 6
RU => PI (soft):
- Turtle fishers in the RAAS and RAAN feel empowered to ignore all fishing regulations/subsistence use requirements/closed seasons.
PI (soft) => RU:
- Lack of sanctioning eroding credibility of soft PI.
- Conflicting rule structure is enhancing confusion which rules apply when.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Resource System)
- Protection and conservation of natal green turtle nesting site in Tortuguero, Costa Rica.
- Recent decrease in catch rates, reduced take levels.
Exogenous Drivers 7 (Public Infrastructure)
Soft infrastructure:
- 1977 Nicaragua became a party to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) which shut down the international (export) market for green turtle products
- 2005 ban on green turtle harvesting implementation by MARENA
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Resource Users)
- Early 1990s, return of indigenous populations to the Caribbean coast after the Nicaraguan civil wars (1974-1979 Sandinista Revolution; and 1979-1990 Contra War) which had caused depopulation of the area via forcible government relocation and voluntary evacuation of indigenous peoples.
- Widespread poverty and economic hardship
- Lack of employment opportunities.
- Population growth due to in-migration of inland indigenous people and Mestizo.
- Discarding of drugs at sea due to a drug interdiction authority's intervention or as payment for passage provides temporary cash relief for families.
Exogenous Drivers 8 (Public Infrastructure Providers)
- Dislike, distrust and cultural animosity between PIP at the national level (hispanic) and indigenous governance levels.
- Political goals of national government leading to directives on PIP not to enforce any environmental laws.
- Engagement of local community leaders in the RAAS and RAAN by Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) and two researchers from Florida State University.
Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Resource Users)
(none specified)Human Infrastructure, Private and Human-Made (Public Infrastructure Providers)
(none specified)Schlager E, University of Arizona.
Brady U, Arizona State University.
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